http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Phoenixx&feedformat=atom WikiChristian - User contributions [en] 2024-03-28T23:14:34Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.32.1 http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Bible&diff=15387 Bible 2006-04-06T04:38:57Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Biblewithlight.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The Bible]]<br /> ''In brief,'' The word Bible comes from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek Greek] word for book and has come to be used to refer to the complete collection of documents acknowledged by Christians to be inspired by [[God]]. Inspired by God literally means, &quot;God breathed&quot; - the actual words of God. This library contains 66 books and is divided into the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]]. It tells of the story of the [[creation]] of the universe and man by God, the rebellion of man against God and his rescue plan for humanity through his Son, [[Jesus Christ]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introductions and overviews'''<br /> * [[An overview of the Bible]]<br /> * [[Bible Dictionary: Bible]]<br /> * [[Introduction to the Bible (by E.M.)]]<br /> * [[Bible (wikipedia)]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Topics'''<br /> * [[The formation and translations of the Bible]]<br /> * [[Biblical inerrancy]] and [[Sola scriptura]]<br /> * [[Characters of the Bible]]<br /> * [[Bible studies, sermons, commentaries and references]]<br /> * [[Miscellaneous Bible topics]]<br /> * [[Historical accuracy of the Bible]]<br /> * [[Biblical criticism]]<br /> * [[Views about the Bible]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bible Versions in the wiki'''<br /> * [[King James Version]]<br /> * [[Bible, English, World English|The World English Bible]]<br /> * [[The American Standard Version|American Standard Version Bible]]<br /> * [[Updated King James Version|Updated King James Version]]<br /> * [[Translation Projects:Urban Slang Version (2005 edition)]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''[[Old Testament]]'''<br /> * [[Books of the Law]] <br /> :* [[Genesis]] | [[Exodus]] | [[Leviticus]] | [[Numbers]] | [[Deuteronomy]]<br /> * [[Historical Books of the Old Testament]]<br /> :* [[Joshua]] | [[Judges]] | [[Ruth]] | [[1 Samuel]] | [[2 Samuel]] | [[1 Kings]] | [[2 Kings]] | [[1 Chronicles]] | [[2 Chronicles]] | [[Ezra]] | [[Nehemiah]] | [[Esther]]<br /> * [[Poetical Books of the Old Testament]]<br /> :* Wisdom Books - [[Job]] | [[Proverbs]] | [[Ecclesiastes]]<br /> :* Poetry - [[Psalms]] | [[Song of Solomon]] | [[Lamentations]]<br /> * [[Prophetic Books of the Old Testament]]<br /> :* Major Prophets - [[Isaiah]] | [[Jeremiah]] | [[Ezekiel]] | [[Daniel]]<br /> :* Minor Prophets - [[Hosea]] | [[Joel]] | [[Amos]] | [[Obadiah]] | [[Jonah]] | [[Micah]] | [[Nahum]] | [[Habakkuk]] | [[Zephaniah]] | [[Haggai]] | [[Zechariah]] | [[Malachi]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''[[New Testament]]'''<br /> *[[Historical Books of the New Testament]]<br /> :* [[The Gospel: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John|The Gospels]] - [[Matthew]] | [[Mark]] | [[Luke]] | [[John]]<br /> :* Church History - [[Acts]]<br /> *[[Introductions to the New Testament letters|Epistles]]:<br /> :* [[Pauline epistles]] - [[Romans]] | [[1 Corinthians]] | [[2 Corinthians]] | [[Galatians]] | [[Ephesians]] | [[Philippians]] | [[Colossians]] | [[1 Thessalonians]] | [[2 Thessalonians]] | [[1 Timothy]] | [[2 Timothy]] | [[Titus]] | [[Philemon]]<br /> :* [[General epistles]] - [[Hebrews]] | [[James]] | [[1 Peter]] | [[2 Peter]] | [[1 John]] | [[2 John]] | [[3 John]] | [[Jude]]<br /> *Prophetic books:<br /> :*[[Revelation]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Articles / opinions'''<br /> * [[Comments about the Bible]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Quotes'''<br /> * [[Famous quotes about the Bible]]<br /> * [[Bible quotes about Scripture]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Miscellaneous'''<br /> * [[The Bible in 50 words]]<br /> * [[List of all the English translations]]<br /> * [[Quick Bible reference|Quick Bible reference (King James Version)]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External links'''<br /> * [http://www.biblegateway.com Look up Bible passages at Bible Gateway]<br /> * [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible See also the extensive notes about the Bible in wikipedia]<br /> * [http://worldebible.com/ Look up Bible in multiple versions]<br /> * [http://www.theopedia.com/Bible 'The Bible' on Theopedia]<br /> * [http://www.biblestudywiki.com/ BibleStudyWiki - a question and answer wiki]<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Go to the [[WikiChristian:Main contents page|Main contents page]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Names_of_God&diff=15385 Names of God 2006-04-06T04:14:19Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>The names used for God in the Bible describe various aspects of God, and they help us to understand all of his various characteristics.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Biblical Idea of the Name'''<br /> ----<br /> In the Bible, the name of [[God]] and the being of God are closely related. This is similar to the ancient idea of what a name signifies.<br /> In the Hebrew language, the word for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language Greek language], “name” (onoma) comes from a verb that means, “to know.” Because of this, a name indicates how a person or object is to be known. The idea of a name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary way of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of the person or thing it is naming. [[Adam]] named the animals according to their nature ([http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Bible%2C_English%2C_American_Standard_Version%2C_Genesis Genesis 2:19-20]). [[Noah]] means “one who brings relief and comfort” ([http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Bible%2C_English%2C_American_Standard_Version%2C_Genesis Genesis 5:29]). [[Jesus]] means “savior” (Matthew 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect. This happened in the life of [[Abraham]], the “father of many” ([http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Bible%2C_English%2C_American_Standard_Version%2C_Genesis Genesis 17:5]), and [[Israel]], “one who strives with God” ([http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Bible%2C_English%2C_American_Standard_Version%2C_Genesis Genesis 32:28]). A person’s name expressed and described the most important characteristics of that person.<br /> With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences. These are most clearly seen when Bible scholars confront the question of whether the names of God are names given by God concerning himself or they are names given to God by people who observed his acts and thought about his character. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<br /> 1. Proper names: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_%28god%29 El], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahweh Yahweh], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adonai Adonai], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theos Theos] (God), Kurios (Lord).<br /> 2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<br /> 3. Titles: Creator, Messiah/Christ, Paraclete/Comforter.<br /> 4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<br /> 5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Names Of God in the Old Testament==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''El and Related Names'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> The name [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El El] is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term el has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be ‘ul, which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is ‘alah, which means, “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean, “to be afraid.” God, the strong one, should be feared. Other scholars suggest that the preposition el, which means, “to, toward” is the root. The idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word ‘alim, meaning, “to bind,” should be considered as a root also. This would then be translated as, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, supreme excellence, and greatness.<br /> El in the Old Testament is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s dynamic power and authority. El describes God as the great producer. He is the One who has such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing ([http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Bible%2C_English%2C_American_Standard_Version%2C_Exodus Exodus 15]). El is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and responsible for all creation ([http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Bible%2C_English%2C_American_Standard_Version%2C_Psalms Psalm 19]).<br /> [[Elohim]] is also commonly used as the name of God, and it occurs over 2,500 times in the Old Testament. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some scholars have suggested that Elohim is the plural form of El, but it seems more likely that it is a plural of Eloah, which appears in the poetical writings of the Old Testament. Some writers have suggested that this plural form comes from pagan religions that believed in more than one god, but no such plural form is found among pagan religions as the name of a deity. Others scholars have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the three-part nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Bible, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions do not contradict each other.<br /> The plural form, Elohim, is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he displays his power in the created universe. Because of this, when the Bible speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning Elohim created the heavens and the earth” ([http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Bible%2C_English%2C_American_Standard_Version%2C_Genesis Genesis 1:1]). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as it is revealed in Creation. In the book of [[Deuteronomy]] the name Elohim is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from slavery in Egypt, their survival in the wilderness, and their preparation to enter the Promised Land. In this context, Elohim is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully give judgment to people who break the covenant. The writers of the [[Psalms]] also used this name repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God as the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his awesome power in many dimensions of life (Psalm 68).<br /> Some scholars point to the use of Elohim when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be Elohim to Abraham and his descendants. In other words, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Genesis 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is always ready to use his power to help those people who are in covenant relationship with him. With this in mind, Elohim also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<br /> The name Eloah mainly occurs in the poetic writings of the Old Testament. It occurs about 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Isaiah 44:8). In the same way David asked, “Who is God [Eloah], but the LORD?” (2 Samuel 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name Eloah in his song (Deuteronomy 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped. God is to be revered with a holy fear.<br /> Another closely related name is Elah, which is found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think Elah is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of Eloah. Its root is said to be ‘alah, which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as Elah is the God to be feared and worshiped. In view of this meaning, we can understand why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<br /> El Elyon is the name used to describe the God of Melchizedek (Genesis 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalm 57:2 and Psalm 78:56 the Hebrew reads Elohim Elyon. It is believed that the term Elyon comes from the verb ‘alah, which means, “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term Elyon is used alone, but the context indicates that it is used in these cases as a synonym for God (Numbers 24:16, Psalm 83:18 and Isaiah 14:14). The term elyon is used quite frequently as an adjective. In these cases, it is translated as “high, highest, upper, and uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is used is One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler of everything. He is incomparable in every way. He is subject to no one and no thing. He is the Exalted One.<br /> El Shaddai is used in the longer form seven times in the Bible (Genesis 17:1; Genesis 28:3; Genesis 35:11; Genesis 43:14; Genesis 48:3; Exodus 6:3 and Ezekiel 10:5). In the shorter form, Shaddai, it appears more frequently. It appears in Job 30 times, in Psalm 19:1 and Psalm 68:14, one time in Ruth (Ruth 1:21), once in Isaiah (Isaiah 13:6), once in Ezekiel (Ezekiel 1:24) and once in Joel (Joel 1:15). In these passages, the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, and sovereign ruler are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term Shaddai. Some scholars have begun with shad as the first concept to be considered. The meaning of shad is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of shad (shadah), in Jewish usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which El Shaddai appears. Neither is the word shed, a reference to a demon, which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that shed is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that Shaddai is a term that combines sha (“the one who”) and dai (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that Shaddai comes from the verb shadad (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between shadad and Shaddai is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as El Shaddai is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who makes final judgments. The Greek Old Testament has adapted this meaning. It translates El Shaddai as Pantokrator, the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<br /> El ‘Olam is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and a characteristic of God are combined. The term ‘olam has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in Bible dictionaries as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of Jesus’ reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from ‘olam (everlasting) to ‘olam (everlasting)” (Psalms 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Isaiah 40:28) and as everlasting strength (Isaiah 26:4). Jeremiah also spoke of God as the everlasting King (Jeremiah 10:10). God’s eternal nature speaks of his infinity in relation to time. ‘Olam, as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration stretching indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcendence of all earthly limits. In addition, ‘olam refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Bible speaks of El ‘Olam in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<br /> El Gibbor is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. Gibbor alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two words together always refer to God, and in some instances Haggadol, which means, “the greatest” is added (Deuteronomy 10:17 and Jeremiah 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. El Gibbor is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 and Psalms 45:4.<br /> El Ro’i is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Genesis 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the One who sees everything.<br /> Yahweh is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods and it is never used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the Old Testament, appearing first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with Elohim. Yahweh is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is sometimes abbreviated as Yah and Yahu (Exodus 15:2, Psalm 68:4 and Isaiah 12:2).<br /> The exact meaning of the name Yahweh is difficult to determine. Some think that it comes from the verb hayah, which means, “to be,” or in an ancient form of that same verb, hawah. There is no agreement as to whether the qal or hiphil form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the hiphil form read Yahweh to mean, “cause to be”. If this is the case, Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the qal form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb hayah and regard it as an original term that expresses the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<br /> Translators of the Old Testament have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name Yahweh. Since it is translated into the Greek as kurios, which means, “Lord,” many have translated Yahweh as “LORD.” However, ‘Adonai, which is best translated “Lord,” appears with Yahweh in various instances. The King James Version, for example, translates Yahweh as “God,” and ‘Adonai as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to maintain the use of Yahweh. The name Jehovah has been judged by translators to be unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing Yahweh because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of Yahweh shall surely be put to death” (Leviticus 24:16). This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s exile to Babylon (Amos 6:10). Because of this, when reading the Old Testament, the Jews substituted either Elohim or ‘Adonai for Yahweh. From this, the practice of adding the vowels of ‘Adonai to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<br /> The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused many debates: “And God said to Moses, ‘I am Yahweh; I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as El Shaddai, but by my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to them.’ “ This passage has been understood to mean that the name Yahweh was not known or used before the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states. Instead, it shows how the patriarchs did not know God as Yahweh. They knew him as El Shaddai through his historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character as Yahweh. In other words, God had always been Yahweh. He is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<br /> This name Yahweh reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes the meaning of the other names. Yahweh particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of inheritance. God told Moses that Israel was about to behold and experience the faithfulness of God as he wondrously brought them into the Promised Land. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, and restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies including merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Exodus 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O Yahweh” (Genesis 49:18).<br /> Yahweh, then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As Yahweh, he is a faithful covenant God who, by giving his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own people.<br /> In view of the richness of the name Yahweh, it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Leviticus 24:11; Leviticus 24:16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of Yahweh in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Psalm 104:35, Psalm 106:1, Psalm 149:1 and Psalm 150:1).<br /> Yahweh is used in a number of phrases that are considered to be names of God. The most common of these compound names is Yahweh Tseba’oth, which means, “hosts”. The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (Numbers 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb saba, which means “to wage” war. It also means, “to serve” in some contexts. For example, Numbers 8:24 clearly makes references to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun tseba’oth first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the word sabaoth refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for evidence.<br /> The compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of tseba’oth in 1-2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Samuel 12:9, 1 Samuel 14:50, 1 Samuel 17:55, 2 Samuel 2:8, 2 Samuel 8:16 and 2 Samuel 10:16), many scholars think that the compound name refers to Yahweh as the God of armies. In other words, God has armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth is used most frequently by the prophets at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Jeremiah uses it 88 times, Zechariah uses it 55 times, Malachi uses it 25 times, and Haggai uses it 14 times. The compound name was used to remind them that their God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Because of this, though Israel’s armies failed, their God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance to Yahweh Tseba’oth (Joshua 5:14-15), and in the name of Yahweh Tseba’oth Israel was blessed (2 Samuel 6:18).<br /> Yahweh-Nissi, which means, “my banner” is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Exodus 17:15). Isaiah uses the term nissi when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Isaiah 11:10).<br /> Yahweh-Rapha, which means, “healer” appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel (Exodus 15:26). Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the One who could heal (Psalms 103:3, Isaiah 30:26 and Jeremiah 6:14).<br /> Yahweh-Rohi, which means, “my shepherd” appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of Yahweh as shepherd is explained in Ezekiel 34 when the prophet writes, “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (Ezekiel 34:15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when he came to earth to be the shepherd who gave his life for his sheep.<br /> Yahweh-Jireh, which means, “to see ahead or to provide” appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God.<br /> Yahweh-Shalom, which means “peace,” is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Judges 6:24).<br /> Yahweh appears with a few forms of the term tsadaq, which means, “righteousness.” Yahweh is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6. Evidently, the thought is that David’s Righteous Branch, the Messiah, will bring God’s righteousness to those who are a part of the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously. In other words, God provides a way of sanctification and pure living (Leviticus 20:8 and Leviticus 22:9).<br /> ‘Adonai as a name for God appears about 360 times in the Old Testament, though it is not used in the same way every time. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 15:8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears over 50 times in the Psalms, and certain prophets, like Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Amos use it frequently also.<br /> The word ‘adan, which means, “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun ‘adon, which is frequently used to describe men. For example, in Genesis and 1-2 Samuel, the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. ‘Adonai is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. ‘Adonai, coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. ‘Adonai is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Psalms 16:2 and Psalms 57:9-10).<br /> <br /> <br /> OLD TESTAMENT NAME COMBINATIONS<br /> In the Old Testament, the names of God appear in various combinations. For example Elohim-Yahweh, Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai, and Elohim-’Adonai are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed to the people of Israel. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with Yahweh-God-Israel (Judges 5:3 and Isaiah 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names. For example, the name Qedosh Yisrael, which means the “Holy One of Israel” (Isaiah 43:14) and ‘Abir Yisrael, which means “Mighty One of Israel” (Genesis 49:24, Psalms 132:2 and Isaiah 49:26). With phrases like these, covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was described.<br /> <br /> <br /> OLD TESTAMENT PERSONAL NAMES<br /> The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these three names. The term ‘Abh, which means “father” appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the Old Testament. However, in these passages it is not used to describe God but rather for someone who is the head of a family or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one God has spoken to or a person who God has blessed with many descendants.<br /> In the poetic books of the Bible, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named Father. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Job 38:28). The reference is to God who is the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5, God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless.” Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father.” The idea here is that God was the Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used to describe God “as a father pities his children” (Psalms 103:13).<br /> Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Isaiah 63:16 and Isaiah 64:8). Isaiah says the child God promises is to be named Everlasting Father (Isaiah 9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4 when he describes God as the origin, keeper, and friend of Israel. Malachi 1:6 and Malachi 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children.<br /> The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the Old Testament to refer to God. It commonly occurs to describe a person’s offspring or descendants. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references in the Old Testament to the second person of the Trinity.<br /> Psalm 2 has such a reference when it says, “You are my son” (Psalms 2:7). It is stated in the context of a king speaking to one who will rule with the king in future times. In the New Testament, this is interpreted to mean the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Because of this, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who will be the divine ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such New Testament passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah talks about the son who will be given (Isaiah 9:6), the one born of the virgin (Isaiah 7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, and the Prince of Peace.<br /> The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the Old Testament. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Genesis 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Isaiah 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ezekiel 37:1), “the Spirit” (Numbers 11:17 and Numbers 27:18), “my Spirit” (Genesis 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Psalms 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the Old Testament as it is in the New Testament, it can be safely stated that the relationship between God and the Spirit described in the Old Testament is such that there is no doubt that the Old Testament teaches the deity of the Holy Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Genesis 1:2 and Psalms 33:6) and the equipping of servants for the service of God. For example, the Holy Spirit equips people for craftsmanship (Exodus 35:31), leadership (Numbers 11:17 and Numbers 27:18), and prophecy (1 Samuel 10:6, 2 Samuel 23:2, 2 Chronicles 15:1 and Ezekiel 11:5).<br /> <br /> <br /> THE NAMES OF GOD IN THE NEW TESTAMENT<br /> <br /> <br /> PROPER NAMES OF GOD<br /> Theos is the New Testament equivalent of the Old Testament names El and Elohim. The Old Testament Elyon appears in the New Testament as Hupsistos, which means the Highest (Mark 5:7, Luke 1:32 and Luke 1:76). Pantokrator (El Shaddai) appears with Theos (2 Corinthians 6:18 and Revelation 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is a person who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with Theos. The name Theos appears over 1,000 times in the New Testament.<br /> Kurios, “Lord,” is used to express the Old Testament names Yahweh and ‘Adonai. Kurios means, “power,” so the meaning is not exactly the same as with Yahweh. However, the New Testament does give Kurios the full weight of meaning that the Old Testament gave to Yahweh, especially when it is used to describe Jesus Christ (Acts 2:36 and Philippians 2:9-11)<br /> Despotes is used five times as a name of God or Jesus in the New Testament (Luke 2:29, Acts 4:24, 2 Peter 2:11, Jude 1:4 and Revelation 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern word “despot” is absent from the New Testament even when it is applied to men, where its central meaning refers to ownership (2 Timothy 2:21).<br /> <br /> <br /> PERSONAL NAMES OF GOD<br /> In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the same meaning they do in the Old Testament, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explained, the New Testament meaning of the names is enriched.<br /> “Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, who is the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Matthew 1:21). The root of this name, “to save,” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the Old Testament root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The New Testament explanation, which means “save from sin,” is not contrary to the meaning in the Old Testament. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham%27s_Biography&diff=15381 Billy Graham's Biography 2006-04-06T03:37:49Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William (Billy) F. Graham<br /> <br /> Evangelist and Chairman of the Board<br /> <br /> &quot;My one purpose in life is to help people find a personal relationship with [[God]], which, I believe, comes through knowing Christ.&quot; --Billy Graham<br /> <br /> Evangelist Billy Graham took Christ literally when He said in Mark 16:15, “Go ye into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature.”<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham has preached the Gospel to more people in live audiences than anyone else in history—over 210 million people in more than 185 countries and territories—through various meetings, including Mission World and Global Mission. Hundreds of millions more have been reached through television, video, film, and webcasts.<br /> <br /> Since the 1949 Los Angeles crusade vaulted Mr. Graham into the public eye, he has led hundreds of thousands of individuals to make personal decisions to live for Christ, which is the main thrust of his ministry.<br /> <br /> Born November 7, 1918, four days before the Armistice ended World War I, Mr. Graham was reared on a dairy farm in Charlotte, North Carolina. Growing up during the Depression, he learned the value of hard work on the family farm, but he also found time to spend many hours in the hayloft reading books on a wide variety of subjects.<br /> <br /> In the fall of 1934, at age 16, Mr. Graham made a personal commitment to Christ through the ministry of Mordecai Ham, a traveling evangelist, who visited Charlotte for a series of revival meetings.<br /> <br /> Ordained in 1939 by a church in the Southern Baptist Convention, Mr. Graham received a solid foundation in the Scriptures at Florida Bible Institute (now Trinity College in Florida). In 1943 he was graduated from Wheaton College in Illinois and married fellow student Ruth McCue Bell, daughter of a missionary surgeon, who spent the first 17 years of her life in China.<br /> <br /> After graduating from college, Mr. Graham pastored the First Baptist Church in Western Springs, Illinois, before joining Youth for Christ, an organization founded for ministry to youth and servicemen during World War II. He preached throughout the United States and in Europe in the immediate post war era, emerging as a rising young evangelist.<br /> <br /> The Los Angeles crusade in 1949 launched Mr. Graham into international prominence. Scheduled for three weeks, the meetings were extended to more than eight weeks, with overflow crowds filling a tent erected downtown each night.<br /> <br /> Many of his subsequent early crusades were similarly extended, including one in London which lasted 12 weeks, and a New York City crusade in Madison Square Garden in 1957 which ran nightly for 16 weeks.<br /> <br /> Today, at age 87, Billy Graham and his ministry are known around the globe. He has preached in remote African villages and in the heart of New York City, and those to whom he has ministered have ranged from heads of state to the simple living bushmen of Australia and the wandering tribes of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1977, Mr. Graham has been accorded the opportunity to conduct preaching missions in virtually every country of the former Eastern bloc, including the former Soviet Union.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham founded the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) in 1950 which was headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until relocating to Charlotte, North Carolina in 2003. He conducts his ministry through the BGEA, including:<br /> <br /> * The weekly “Hour of Decision” radio program broadcast around the world on Sundays for over 50 years.<br /> <br /> * Television specials featuring Billy Graham Crusades and Franklin Graham Festivals which are broadcast in prime time on an average of 150 stations across the United States and Canada five to seven times annually.<br /> <br /> * A syndicated newspaper column, “My Answer,” which is carried by newspapers both nationally and internationally.<br /> <br /> * &quot;Decision&quot; magazine, the official publication of the Association, which has a circulation of more than 600,000 and is available in English and German versions, with special editions available in Braille and on cassette tape for the visually impaired.<br /> <br /> * World Wide Pictures which has produced and distributed over 125 productions, making it one of the foremost producers of evangelistic films in the world. Films have been translated into 38 languages and viewed by more than 250 million people worldwide and are available for showing in prisons and correctional facilities nationwide.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham has written 25 books, many of which have become top sellers. His memoirs, “Just As I Am,” published in 1997, achieved a “triple crown,” appearing simultaneously on the three top best-seller lists in one week. In it Mr. Graham reflects on his life, including more than 60 years of ministry around the world. From humble beginnings as the son of a dairy farmer in North Carolina, he shares how his unwavering faith in Christ formed and shaped his career.<br /> <br /> Of his other books, “Approaching Hoofbeats: The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” (1983) was listed for several weeks on The New York Times best seller list; “How to Be Born Again” (1977) had the largest first printing in publishing history with 800,000 copies; “Angels: God’s Secret Agents” (1975) sold one million copies within 90 days; and “The Jesus Generation” (1971) sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham’s counsel has been sought by presidents, and his appeal in both the secular and religious arenas is evidenced by the wide range of groups that have honored him, including numerous honorary doctorates from many institutions in the U. S. and abroad.<br /> <br /> Recognitions include the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation Freedom Award (2000) for contributions to the cause of freedom; the Congressional Gold Medal (1996); the Templeton Foundation Prize for Progress in Religion (1982); and the Big Brother Award for his work on behalf of the welfare of children (1966). In 1964 he received the Speaker of the Year Award and was cited by the George Washington Carver Memorial Institute for his contributions to race relations. He was recognized by the Anti-Defamation League of the B’nai B’rith in 1969 and the National Conference of Christians and Jews in 1971 for his efforts to foster a better understanding among all faiths. In December 2001 he was presented with an honorary knighthood, Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), for his international contribution to civic and religious life over 60 years.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham is regularly listed by the Gallup organization as one of the “Ten Most Admired Men in the World,” whom it described as the dominant figure in that poll since 1948—making an unparalleled 48th appearance and 41st consecutive appearance. He has also appeared on the covers of Time, Newsweek, Life, U.S. News and World Report, Parade, and numerous other magazines and has been the subject of many newspaper and magazine feature articles and books.<br /> <br /> He and his wife, Ruth, have three daughters, two sons, 19 grandchildren and numerous great grandchildren. The Grahams make their home in the mountains of western North Carolina.<br /> <br /> &lt;- Back to [[Billy Graham]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=God&diff=15380 God 2006-04-06T03:30:31Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>{| cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;<br /> |- valign=&quot;top&quot;<br /> |width=&quot;100%&quot; class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ffddc0; color: #000; background-color: #ffffee&quot;|<br /> ''In the beginng, God created the heavens and the earth... ([[Genesis]] 1: 1)''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ''In brief,'' God is the central being. He created the Earth. He created man in His own image and He is the Father of all. God is mercy and is all that is love. Over 2 billion people in the world confess God as their Lord and savior. He is a personal being, who is three in one - Father, Son and Holy Spirit. God has been here since the beginning. And He performs miracles in the world today. God stands ready to come into your life when you confess him and repent, this is when you are [[born again]]. God states in the Bible that his followers after the end of the World will be with Him eternally in [[Heaven]] while those who do not confess Him will be eternally separated in [[Hell]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Overviews'''<br /> * [[The Christian understanding of God]] <br /> * [[Different understandings of God]]<br /> * [[Different understandings of God (wikipedia)]]<br /> * [[God (theopedia)]]<br /> <br /> '''[[Names of God]]'''<br /> <br /> '''Character of God'''<br /> * [[God is the creator]]<br /> * [[God is love]]<br /> * [[God is Holy]] <br /> * [[God is forgiving]] <br /> * [[Trinity|God and the Trinity]] - [[God the Father]], [[Jesus|Jesus: God the Son]] and the [[Holy Spirit]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Articles / opinions'''<br /> * [[Comments on God]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Studies'''<br /> * [[Apologetics: God]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Quotes'''<br /> * [[God the creator (Bible verses)]]<br /> * [[God the Father (Bible verses)]] <br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Go to the [[WikiChristian:Main contents page|Main contents page]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham&diff=15355 Billy Graham 2006-04-05T17:31:23Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William Franklin Graham (born November 7, 1918), commonly known as Billy Graham, is an American Christian evangelist who has preached the message of [[Christianity]] around the world, reaching live audiences of 210 million people in 185 countries. He has led hundreds of thousands of people to make personal decisions to accept [[Jesus Christ]] into their lives. Many of his sermons center on the topic &quot;Jesus Christ is the only way of [[salvation]].&quot; He has often advised U.S. presidents and continues to be listed as one of the &quot;Ten Most Admired Men in the World&quot; in Gallup Polls.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction/Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Billy Graham's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_graham Billy Graham on Wikipedia]<br /> * [[AIDs, a Judgement From God?]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External Links'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> * [http://www.billygraham.com Billy Graham Evangelical Association]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham&diff=15354 Billy Graham 2006-04-05T17:28:07Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William Franklin Graham (born November 7, 1918), commonly known as Billy Graham, is an American Christian evangelist who has preached the message of [[Christianity]] around the world, reaching live audiences of 210 million people in 185 countries. He has led hundreds of thousands of people to make personal decisions to accept [[Jesus Christ]] into their lives. Many of his sermons center on the topic &quot;Jesus Christ is the only way of [[salvation]].&quot; He has often advised U.S. presidents and continues to be listed as one of the &quot;Ten Most Admired Men in the World&quot; in Gallup Polls.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction/Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Billy Graham's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_graham Billy Graham on Wikipedia]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External Links'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> * [http://www.billygraham.com Billy Graham Evangelical Association]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15353 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:21:28Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|thumb|150px|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_Saxony Saxony], Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erfurt_University Erfurt] (1501), where he came under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominalist Nominalist] influence and learned [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek Greek], graduating [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts B.A.] in 1502 and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Arts_%28postgraduate%29 M.A.] in 1505. He had intended to study [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law law], but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_monk Augustinian monk] in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological theological] study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|150px|Martin Luther Seal|right]]<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;- Back to [[Martin Luther]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15352 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:11:44Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|thumb|150px|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|150px|Martin Luther Seal|right]]<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15351 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:11:27Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|thumb|150px|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|150px|&lt;center&gt;Martin Luther Seal|right]]<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15350 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:10:48Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|thumb|150px|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|150px|Martin Luther Seal&lt;center&gt;|right]]<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15349 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:09:58Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|thumb|200px|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|200px|&lt;center&gt;Martin Luther Seal|right]]<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15348 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:08:51Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|thumb|100px|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|150px|&lt;center&gt;Martin Luther Seal|right]]<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15347 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:07:43Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|thumb|250px|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|250px|&lt;center&gt;Martin Luther Seal|right]]<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15346 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:06:50Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Martin Luther Seal|right]]<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15345 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:03:29Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther|right]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15344 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T17:03:04Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> [[Image:saint-martin-luther.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Saint Martin Luther]]<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15342 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T16:58:26Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15341 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T16:58:07Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Early Life'''<br /> ----<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> '''Trouble Brewing'''<br /> ----<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> '''The Rift'''<br /> ----<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Reconstructing a Religion'''<br /> ----<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Continuing Disagreements'''<br /> ----<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Worship Reform'''<br /> ----<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Death and Legacy'''<br /> ----<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther&diff=15340 Martin Luther 2006-04-05T16:54:53Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Luther2.jpg|250px|thumb|&lt;center&gt;Martin Luther (by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder Lucas Cranach the Elder])|right]]<br /> '''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> Martin Luther<br /> (1483–1546)<br /> Father of the German Reformation<br /> <br /> A few years back, when people started listing the most important people of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_millennium second millennium], Martin Luther was at or near the top of most lists. He simply changed the world, daring to challenge the corruption of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Church Roman Church] and launching a social, political, and spiritual Reformation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction &amp; Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Martin Luther's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_luther Martin Luther] on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia Wikipedia]<br /> <br /> '''See Also'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Theologians and Evangelists]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther&diff=15339 Martin Luther 2006-04-05T16:51:22Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Luther2.jpg|250px|thumb|&lt;center&gt;Martin Luther (Lucas Cranach the Elder)&lt;center&gt;|right]]<br /> '''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> Martin Luther<br /> (1483–1546)<br /> Father of the German Reformation<br /> <br /> A few years back, when people started listing the most important people of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_millennium second millennium], Martin Luther was at or near the top of most lists. He simply changed the world, daring to challenge the corruption of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Church Roman Church] and launching a social, political, and spiritual Reformation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction &amp; Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Martin Luther's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_luther Martin Luther] on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia Wikipedia]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther&diff=15337 Martin Luther 2006-04-05T16:48:19Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Luther2.jpg|250px|Martin Luther|right]]<br /> '''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> Martin Luther<br /> (1483–1546)<br /> Father of the German Reformation<br /> <br /> A few years back, when people started listing the most important people of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_millennium second millennium], Martin Luther was at or near the top of most lists. He simply changed the world, daring to challenge the corruption of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Church Roman Church] and launching a social, political, and spiritual Reformation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction &amp; Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Martin Luther's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_luther Martin Luther] on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia Wikipedia]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther&diff=15336 Martin Luther 2006-04-05T16:45:21Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> Martin Luther<br /> (1483–1546)<br /> Father of the German Reformation<br /> <br /> A few years back, when people started listing the most important people of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_millennium second millennium], Martin Luther was at or near the top of most lists. He simply changed the world, daring to challenge the corruption of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Church Roman Church] and launching a social, political, and spiritual Reformation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction &amp; Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Martin Luther's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_luther Martin Luther] on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia Wikipedia]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther&diff=15335 Martin Luther 2006-04-05T16:40:54Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> MARTIN LUTHER<br /> (1483–1546)<br /> Father of the German Reformation<br /> <br /> A few years back, when people started listing the most important people of the second millennium, Martin Luther was at or near the top of most lists. He simply changed the world, daring to challenge the corruption of the Roman Church and launching a social, political, and spiritual Reformation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction &amp; Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Martin Luther's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_luther Martin Luther] on Wikipedia</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther%27s_Biography&diff=15334 Martin Luther's Biography 2006-04-05T16:39:32Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>MARTIN LUTHER<br /> (1483–1546)<br /> Father of the German Reformation<br /> <br /> <br /> OVERVIEW<br /> A few years back, when people started listing the most important people of the second millennium, Martin Luther was at or near the top of most lists. He simply changed the world, daring to challenge the corruption of the Roman Church and launching a social, political, and spiritual Reformation.<br /> <br /> <br /> EARLY LIFE<br /> Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506.<br /> In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.<br /> <br /> <br /> TROUBLE BREWING<br /> Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ.<br /> Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.<br /> <br /> <br /> THE RIFT<br /> Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers.<br /> By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.”<br /> The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.<br /> <br /> <br /> RECONSTRUCTING A RELIGION<br /> Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration.<br /> During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk.<br /> Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.<br /> <br /> <br /> CONTINUING DISAGREEMENTS<br /> The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church.<br /> Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period.<br /> From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform.<br /> A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.<br /> <br /> <br /> WORSHIP REFORM<br /> At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers.<br /> The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself.<br /> Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.<br /> <br /> <br /> DEATH AND LEGACY<br /> Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546.<br /> Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself.<br /> This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians.<br /> Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action.<br /> Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed.</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther&diff=15333 Martin Luther 2006-04-05T16:38:56Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> MARTIN LUTHER<br /> (1483–1546)<br /> Father of the German Reformation<br /> <br /> A few years back, when people started listing the most important people of the second millennium, Martin Luther was at or near the top of most lists. He simply changed the world, daring to challenge the corruption of the Roman Church and launching a social, political, and spiritual Reformation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction &amp; Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Martin Luther's Biography]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham&diff=15332 Billy Graham 2006-04-05T16:33:01Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William Franklin Graham (born November 7, 1918), commonly known as Billy Graham, is an American Christian evangelist who has preached the message of [[Christianity]] around the world, reaching live audiences of 210 million people in 185 countries. He has led hundreds of thousands of people to make personal decisions to accept [[Jesus Christ]] into their lives. Many of his sermons center on the topic &quot;Jesus Christ is the only way of [[salvation]].&quot; He has often advised U.S. presidents and continues to be listed as one of the &quot;Ten Most Admired Men in the World&quot; in Gallup Polls.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Introduction/Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Billy Graham's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_graham Billy Graham on Wikipedia]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External Links'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> * [http://www.billygraham.com Billy Graham]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham&diff=15331 Billy Graham 2006-04-05T16:32:27Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William Franklin Graham (born November 7, 1918), commonly known as Billy Graham, is an American Christian evangelist who has preached the message of [[Christianity]] around the world, reaching live audiences of 210 million people in 185 countries. He has led hundreds of thousands of people to make personal decisions to accept [[Jesus Christ]] into their lives. Many of his sermons center on the topic &quot;Jesus Christ is the only way of [[salvation]].&quot; He has often advised U.S. presidents and continues to be listed as one of the &quot;Ten Most Admired Men in the World&quot; in Gallup Polls.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction/Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Billy Graham's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_graham Billy Graham on Wikipedia]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External Links'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> * [http://www.billygraham.com Billy Graham]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham&diff=15330 Billy Graham 2006-04-05T16:31:21Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William Franklin Graham (born November 7, 1918), commonly known as Billy Graham, is an American Christian evangelist who has preached the message of [[Christianity]] around the world, reaching live audiences of 210 million people in 185 countries. He has led hundreds of thousands of people to make personal decisions to accept [[Jesus Christ]] into their lives. Many of his sermons center on the topic &quot;Jesus Christ is the only way of [[salvation]].&quot; He has often advised U.S. presidents and continues to be listed as one of the &quot;Ten Most Admired Men in the World&quot; in Gallup Polls.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction/Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Billy Graham's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_graham Billy Graham on Wikipedia]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External Links'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> * [http://www.billygraham.com Billy Graham]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Quotes'''<br /> * [[Quotes of Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Quotes about Billy Graham]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham&diff=15329 Billy Graham 2006-04-05T16:30:40Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William Franklin Graham (born November 7, 1918), commonly known as Billy Graham, is an American Christian evangelist who has preached the message of [[Christianity]] around the world, reaching live audiences of 210 million people in 185 countries. He has led hundreds of thousands of people to make personal decisions to accept [[Jesus Christ]] into their lives. Many of his sermons center on the topic &quot;Jesus Christ is the only way of [[salvation]].&quot; He has often advised U.S. presidents and continues to be listed as one of the &quot;Ten Most Admired Men in the World&quot; in Gallup Polls.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction/Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Billy Graham's Biography]]<br /> * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_graham]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External Links'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> * [http://www.billygraham.com Billy Graham]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Quotes'''<br /> * [[Quotes of Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Quotes about Billy Graham]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham&diff=15328 Billy Graham 2006-04-05T16:29:23Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William Franklin Graham (born November 7, 1918), commonly known as Billy Graham, is an American Christian evangelist who has preached the message of [[Christianity]] around the world, reaching live audiences of 210 million people in 185 countries. He has led hundreds of thousands of people to make personal decisions to accept [[Jesus Christ]] into their lives. Many of his sermons center on the topic &quot;Jesus Christ is the only way of [[salvation]].&quot; He has often advised U.S. presidents and continues to be listed as one of the &quot;Ten Most Admired Men in the World&quot; in Gallup Polls.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction/Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Billy Gramham's Biography]]<br /> * [[Billy Graham on Wikipedia]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External Links'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> * [http://www.billygraham.com Billy Graham]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Quotes'''<br /> * [[Quotes of Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Quotes about Billy Graham]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham%27s_Biography&diff=15326 Billy Graham's Biography 2006-04-05T16:28:55Z <p>Phoenixx: Biography moved to Billy Graham's Biography</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William (Billy) F. Graham<br /> Evangelist and Chairman of the Board<br /> <br /> &quot;My one purpose in life is to help people find a personal relationship with God, which, I believe, comes through knowing Christ.&quot; --Billy Graham<br /> <br /> Evangelist Billy Graham took Christ literally when He said in Mark 16:15, “Go ye into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature.”<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham has preached the Gospel to more people in live audiences than anyone else in history—over 210 million people in more than 185 countries and territories—through various meetings, including Mission World and Global Mission. Hundreds of millions more have been reached through television, video, film, and webcasts.<br /> <br /> Since the 1949 Los Angeles crusade vaulted Mr. Graham into the public eye, he has led hundreds of thousands of individuals to make personal decisions to live for Christ, which is the main thrust of his ministry.<br /> <br /> Born November 7, 1918, four days before the Armistice ended World War I, Mr. Graham was reared on a dairy farm in Charlotte, North Carolina. Growing up during the Depression, he learned the value of hard work on the family farm, but he also found time to spend many hours in the hayloft reading books on a wide variety of subjects.<br /> <br /> In the fall of 1934, at age 16, Mr. Graham made a personal commitment to Christ through the ministry of Mordecai Ham, a traveling evangelist, who visited Charlotte for a series of revival meetings.<br /> <br /> Ordained in 1939 by a church in the Southern Baptist Convention, Mr. Graham received a solid foundation in the Scriptures at Florida Bible Institute (now Trinity College in Florida). In 1943 he was graduated from Wheaton College in Illinois and married fellow student Ruth McCue Bell, daughter of a missionary surgeon, who spent the first 17 years of her life in China.<br /> <br /> After graduating from college, Mr. Graham pastored the First Baptist Church in Western Springs, Illinois, before joining Youth for Christ, an organization founded for ministry to youth and servicemen during World War II. He preached throughout the United States and in Europe in the immediate post war era, emerging as a rising young evangelist.<br /> <br /> The Los Angeles crusade in 1949 launched Mr. Graham into international prominence. Scheduled for three weeks, the meetings were extended to more than eight weeks, with overflow crowds filling a tent erected downtown each night.<br /> <br /> Many of his subsequent early crusades were similarly extended, including one in London which lasted 12 weeks, and a New York City crusade in Madison Square Garden in 1957 which ran nightly for 16 weeks.<br /> <br /> Today, at age 87, Billy Graham and his ministry are known around the globe. He has preached in remote African villages and in the heart of New York City, and those to whom he has ministered have ranged from heads of state to the simple living bushmen of Australia and the wandering tribes of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1977, Mr. Graham has been accorded the opportunity to conduct preaching missions in virtually every country of the former Eastern bloc, including the former Soviet Union.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham founded the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) in 1950 which was headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until relocating to Charlotte, North Carolina in 2003. He conducts his ministry through the BGEA, including:<br /> <br /> * The weekly “Hour of Decision” radio program broadcast around the world on Sundays for over 50 years.<br /> <br /> * Television specials featuring Billy Graham Crusades and Franklin Graham Festivals which are broadcast in prime time on an average of 150 stations across the United States and Canada five to seven times annually.<br /> <br /> * A syndicated newspaper column, “My Answer,” which is carried by newspapers both nationally and internationally.<br /> <br /> * &quot;Decision&quot; magazine, the official publication of the Association, which has a circulation of more than 600,000 and is available in English and German versions, with special editions available in Braille and on cassette tape for the visually impaired.<br /> <br /> * World Wide Pictures which has produced and distributed over 125 productions, making it one of the foremost producers of evangelistic films in the world. Films have been translated into 38 languages and viewed by more than 250 million people worldwide and are available for showing in prisons and correctional facilities nationwide.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham has written 25 books, many of which have become top sellers. His memoirs, “Just As I Am,” published in 1997, achieved a “triple crown,” appearing simultaneously on the three top best-seller lists in one week. In it Mr. Graham reflects on his life, including more than 60 years of ministry around the world. From humble beginnings as the son of a dairy farmer in North Carolina, he shares how his unwavering faith in Christ formed and shaped his career.<br /> <br /> Of his other books, “Approaching Hoofbeats: The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” (1983) was listed for several weeks on The New York Times best seller list; “How to Be Born Again” (1977) had the largest first printing in publishing history with 800,000 copies; “Angels: God’s Secret Agents” (1975) sold one million copies within 90 days; and “The Jesus Generation” (1971) sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham’s counsel has been sought by presidents, and his appeal in both the secular and religious arenas is evidenced by the wide range of groups that have honored him, including numerous honorary doctorates from many institutions in the U. S. and abroad.<br /> <br /> Recognitions include the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation Freedom Award (2000) for contributions to the cause of freedom; the Congressional Gold Medal (1996); the Templeton Foundation Prize for Progress in Religion (1982); and the Big Brother Award for his work on behalf of the welfare of children (1966). In 1964 he received the Speaker of the Year Award and was cited by the George Washington Carver Memorial Institute for his contributions to race relations. He was recognized by the Anti-Defamation League of the B’nai B’rith in 1969 and the National Conference of Christians and Jews in 1971 for his efforts to foster a better understanding among all faiths. In December 2001 he was presented with an honorary knighthood, Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), for his international contribution to civic and religious life over 60 years.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham is regularly listed by the Gallup organization as one of the “Ten Most Admired Men in the World,” whom it described as the dominant figure in that poll since 1948—making an unparalleled 48th appearance and 41st consecutive appearance. He has also appeared on the covers of Time, Newsweek, Life, U.S. News and World Report, Parade, and numerous other magazines and has been the subject of many newspaper and magazine feature articles and books.<br /> <br /> He and his wife, Ruth, have three daughters, two sons, 19 grandchildren and numerous great grandchildren. The Grahams make their home in the mountains of western North Carolina.<br /> <br /> &lt;- Back to [[Billy Graham]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham%27s_Biography&diff=15325 Billy Graham's Biography 2006-04-05T16:27:16Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William (Billy) F. Graham<br /> Evangelist and Chairman of the Board<br /> <br /> &quot;My one purpose in life is to help people find a personal relationship with God, which, I believe, comes through knowing Christ.&quot; --Billy Graham<br /> <br /> Evangelist Billy Graham took Christ literally when He said in Mark 16:15, “Go ye into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature.”<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham has preached the Gospel to more people in live audiences than anyone else in history—over 210 million people in more than 185 countries and territories—through various meetings, including Mission World and Global Mission. Hundreds of millions more have been reached through television, video, film, and webcasts.<br /> <br /> Since the 1949 Los Angeles crusade vaulted Mr. Graham into the public eye, he has led hundreds of thousands of individuals to make personal decisions to live for Christ, which is the main thrust of his ministry.<br /> <br /> Born November 7, 1918, four days before the Armistice ended World War I, Mr. Graham was reared on a dairy farm in Charlotte, North Carolina. Growing up during the Depression, he learned the value of hard work on the family farm, but he also found time to spend many hours in the hayloft reading books on a wide variety of subjects.<br /> <br /> In the fall of 1934, at age 16, Mr. Graham made a personal commitment to Christ through the ministry of Mordecai Ham, a traveling evangelist, who visited Charlotte for a series of revival meetings.<br /> <br /> Ordained in 1939 by a church in the Southern Baptist Convention, Mr. Graham received a solid foundation in the Scriptures at Florida Bible Institute (now Trinity College in Florida). In 1943 he was graduated from Wheaton College in Illinois and married fellow student Ruth McCue Bell, daughter of a missionary surgeon, who spent the first 17 years of her life in China.<br /> <br /> After graduating from college, Mr. Graham pastored the First Baptist Church in Western Springs, Illinois, before joining Youth for Christ, an organization founded for ministry to youth and servicemen during World War II. He preached throughout the United States and in Europe in the immediate post war era, emerging as a rising young evangelist.<br /> <br /> The Los Angeles crusade in 1949 launched Mr. Graham into international prominence. Scheduled for three weeks, the meetings were extended to more than eight weeks, with overflow crowds filling a tent erected downtown each night.<br /> <br /> Many of his subsequent early crusades were similarly extended, including one in London which lasted 12 weeks, and a New York City crusade in Madison Square Garden in 1957 which ran nightly for 16 weeks.<br /> <br /> Today, at age 87, Billy Graham and his ministry are known around the globe. He has preached in remote African villages and in the heart of New York City, and those to whom he has ministered have ranged from heads of state to the simple living bushmen of Australia and the wandering tribes of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1977, Mr. Graham has been accorded the opportunity to conduct preaching missions in virtually every country of the former Eastern bloc, including the former Soviet Union.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham founded the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) in 1950 which was headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until relocating to Charlotte, North Carolina in 2003. He conducts his ministry through the BGEA, including:<br /> <br /> * The weekly “Hour of Decision” radio program broadcast around the world on Sundays for over 50 years.<br /> <br /> * Television specials featuring Billy Graham Crusades and Franklin Graham Festivals which are broadcast in prime time on an average of 150 stations across the United States and Canada five to seven times annually.<br /> <br /> * A syndicated newspaper column, “My Answer,” which is carried by newspapers both nationally and internationally.<br /> <br /> * &quot;Decision&quot; magazine, the official publication of the Association, which has a circulation of more than 600,000 and is available in English and German versions, with special editions available in Braille and on cassette tape for the visually impaired.<br /> <br /> * World Wide Pictures which has produced and distributed over 125 productions, making it one of the foremost producers of evangelistic films in the world. Films have been translated into 38 languages and viewed by more than 250 million people worldwide and are available for showing in prisons and correctional facilities nationwide.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham has written 25 books, many of which have become top sellers. His memoirs, “Just As I Am,” published in 1997, achieved a “triple crown,” appearing simultaneously on the three top best-seller lists in one week. In it Mr. Graham reflects on his life, including more than 60 years of ministry around the world. From humble beginnings as the son of a dairy farmer in North Carolina, he shares how his unwavering faith in Christ formed and shaped his career.<br /> <br /> Of his other books, “Approaching Hoofbeats: The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” (1983) was listed for several weeks on The New York Times best seller list; “How to Be Born Again” (1977) had the largest first printing in publishing history with 800,000 copies; “Angels: God’s Secret Agents” (1975) sold one million copies within 90 days; and “The Jesus Generation” (1971) sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham’s counsel has been sought by presidents, and his appeal in both the secular and religious arenas is evidenced by the wide range of groups that have honored him, including numerous honorary doctorates from many institutions in the U. S. and abroad.<br /> <br /> Recognitions include the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation Freedom Award (2000) for contributions to the cause of freedom; the Congressional Gold Medal (1996); the Templeton Foundation Prize for Progress in Religion (1982); and the Big Brother Award for his work on behalf of the welfare of children (1966). In 1964 he received the Speaker of the Year Award and was cited by the George Washington Carver Memorial Institute for his contributions to race relations. He was recognized by the Anti-Defamation League of the B’nai B’rith in 1969 and the National Conference of Christians and Jews in 1971 for his efforts to foster a better understanding among all faiths. In December 2001 he was presented with an honorary knighthood, Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), for his international contribution to civic and religious life over 60 years.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham is regularly listed by the Gallup organization as one of the “Ten Most Admired Men in the World,” whom it described as the dominant figure in that poll since 1948—making an unparalleled 48th appearance and 41st consecutive appearance. He has also appeared on the covers of Time, Newsweek, Life, U.S. News and World Report, Parade, and numerous other magazines and has been the subject of many newspaper and magazine feature articles and books.<br /> <br /> He and his wife, Ruth, have three daughters, two sons, 19 grandchildren and numerous great grandchildren. The Grahams make their home in the mountains of western North Carolina.<br /> <br /> &lt;- Back to [[Billy Graham]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham%27s_Biography&diff=15324 Billy Graham's Biography 2006-04-05T16:24:47Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Biography'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> William (Billy) F. Graham<br /> Evangelist and Chairman of the Board<br /> <br /> &quot;My one purpose in life is to help people find a personal relationship with God, which, I believe, comes through knowing Christ.&quot; --Billy Graham<br /> <br /> Evangelist Billy Graham took Christ literally when He said in Mark 16:15, “Go ye into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature.”<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham has preached the Gospel to more people in live audiences than anyone else in history—over 210 million people in more than 185 countries and territories—through various meetings, including Mission World and Global Mission. Hundreds of millions more have been reached through television, video, film, and webcasts.<br /> <br /> Since the 1949 Los Angeles crusade vaulted Mr. Graham into the public eye, he has led hundreds of thousands of individuals to make personal decisions to live for Christ, which is the main thrust of his ministry.<br /> <br /> Born November 7, 1918, four days before the Armistice ended World War I, Mr. Graham was reared on a dairy farm in Charlotte, North Carolina. Growing up during the Depression, he learned the value of hard work on the family farm, but he also found time to spend many hours in the hayloft reading books on a wide variety of subjects.<br /> <br /> In the fall of 1934, at age 16, Mr. Graham made a personal commitment to Christ through the ministry of Mordecai Ham, a traveling evangelist, who visited Charlotte for a series of revival meetings.<br /> <br /> Ordained in 1939 by a church in the Southern Baptist Convention, Mr. Graham received a solid foundation in the Scriptures at Florida Bible Institute (now Trinity College in Florida). In 1943 he was graduated from Wheaton College in Illinois and married fellow student Ruth McCue Bell, daughter of a missionary surgeon, who spent the first 17 years of her life in China.<br /> <br /> After graduating from college, Mr. Graham pastored the First Baptist Church in Western Springs, Illinois, before joining Youth for Christ, an organization founded for ministry to youth and servicemen during World War II. He preached throughout the United States and in Europe in the immediate post war era, emerging as a rising young evangelist.<br /> <br /> The Los Angeles crusade in 1949 launched Mr. Graham into international prominence. Scheduled for three weeks, the meetings were extended to more than eight weeks, with overflow crowds filling a tent erected downtown each night.<br /> <br /> Many of his subsequent early crusades were similarly extended, including one in London which lasted 12 weeks, and a New York City crusade in Madison Square Garden in 1957 which ran nightly for 16 weeks.<br /> <br /> Today, at age 87, Billy Graham and his ministry are known around the globe. He has preached in remote African villages and in the heart of New York City, and those to whom he has ministered have ranged from heads of state to the simple living bushmen of Australia and the wandering tribes of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1977, Mr. Graham has been accorded the opportunity to conduct preaching missions in virtually every country of the former Eastern bloc, including the former Soviet Union.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham founded the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) in 1950 which was headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota, until relocating to Charlotte, North Carolina in 2003. He conducts his ministry through the BGEA, including:<br /> <br /> * The weekly “Hour of Decision” radio program broadcast around the world on Sundays for over 50 years.<br /> <br /> * Television specials featuring Billy Graham Crusades and Franklin Graham Festivals which are broadcast in prime time on an average of 150 stations across the United States and Canada five to seven times annually.<br /> <br /> * A syndicated newspaper column, “My Answer,” which is carried by newspapers both nationally and internationally.<br /> <br /> * &quot;Decision&quot; magazine, the official publication of the Association, which has a circulation of more than 600,000 and is available in English and German versions, with special editions available in Braille and on cassette tape for the visually impaired.<br /> <br /> * World Wide Pictures which has produced and distributed over 125 productions, making it one of the foremost producers of evangelistic films in the world. Films have been translated into 38 languages and viewed by more than 250 million people worldwide and are available for showing in prisons and correctional facilities nationwide.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham has written 25 books, many of which have become top sellers. His memoirs, “Just As I Am,” published in 1997, achieved a “triple crown,” appearing simultaneously on the three top best-seller lists in one week. In it Mr. Graham reflects on his life, including more than 60 years of ministry around the world. From humble beginnings as the son of a dairy farmer in North Carolina, he shares how his unwavering faith in Christ formed and shaped his career.<br /> <br /> Of his other books, “Approaching Hoofbeats: The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” (1983) was listed for several weeks on The New York Times best seller list; “How to Be Born Again” (1977) had the largest first printing in publishing history with 800,000 copies; “Angels: God’s Secret Agents” (1975) sold one million copies within 90 days; and “The Jesus Generation” (1971) sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham’s counsel has been sought by presidents, and his appeal in both the secular and religious arenas is evidenced by the wide range of groups that have honored him, including numerous honorary doctorates from many institutions in the U. S. and abroad.<br /> <br /> Recognitions include the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation Freedom Award (2000) for contributions to the cause of freedom; the Congressional Gold Medal (1996); the Templeton Foundation Prize for Progress in Religion (1982); and the Big Brother Award for his work on behalf of the welfare of children (1966). In 1964 he received the Speaker of the Year Award and was cited by the George Washington Carver Memorial Institute for his contributions to race relations. He was recognized by the Anti-Defamation League of the B’nai B’rith in 1969 and the National Conference of Christians and Jews in 1971 for his efforts to foster a better understanding among all faiths. In December 2001 he was presented with an honorary knighthood, Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), for his international contribution to civic and religious life over 60 years.<br /> <br /> Mr. Graham is regularly listed by the Gallup organization as one of the “Ten Most Admired Men in the World,” whom it described as the dominant figure in that poll since 1948—making an unparalleled 48th appearance and 41st consecutive appearance. He has also appeared on the covers of Time, Newsweek, Life, U.S. News and World Report, Parade, and numerous other magazines and has been the subject of many newspaper and magazine feature articles and books.<br /> <br /> He and his wife, Ruth, have three daughters, two sons, 19 grandchildren and numerous great grandchildren. The Grahams make their home in the mountains of western North Carolina.<br /> <br /> &lt;- Back to [[Billy Graham]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Billy_Graham&diff=15323 Billy Graham 2006-04-05T16:23:14Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Overview'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:BillyGraham.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> William Franklin Graham (born November 7, 1918), commonly known as Billy Graham, is an American Christian evangelist who has preached the message of [[Christianity]] around the world, reaching live audiences of 210 million people in 185 countries. He has led hundreds of thousands of people to make personal decisions to accept [[Jesus Christ]] into their lives. Many of his sermons center on the topic &quot;Jesus Christ is the only way of [[salvation]].&quot; He has often advised U.S. presidents and continues to be listed as one of the &quot;Ten Most Admired Men in the World&quot; in Gallup Polls.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction/Articles'''<br /> ----<br /> * [[Biography]]<br /> * [[Billy Graham on Wikipedia]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''External Links'''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> * [http://www.billygraham.com Billy Graham]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Quotes'''<br /> * [[Quotes of Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Quotes about Billy Graham]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Famous_Christians&diff=15322 Famous Christians 2006-04-05T16:01:36Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>''In brief,'' Some of the more well known Christians have included Paul the apostle, Augustine, Martin Luther and C.S. Lewis. Yet every person impacts on the world in some way. We may not remember who the man was that led Billy Graham to Christ, but he certainly has changed the world.<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Characters of the Bible]]<br /> <br /> [[Apostles]]<br /> <br /> [[Authors]]<br /> <br /> [[Saints]]<br /> <br /> [[Song riters]]<br /> <br /> [[Theologians and Evangelists]]<br /> <br /> [[Miscellaneous Famous People - Christians and non-Christians]]<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Go to the [[WikiChristian:Main contents page|Main contents page]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Web_Directory:_Online_Ministries&diff=15319 Web Directory: Online Ministries 2006-04-05T14:55:43Z <p>Phoenixx: Online Ministries</p> <hr /> <div><br /> * [http://www.bible.com Bible.com] Proclaiming God's Word to the Nations<br /> * [http://www.gospelcom.net Gospelcom.net] An Alliance of Over 300 Online Ministries<br /> * [http://www.xxxchurch.com XXX Church] #1 Christian Porn Site<br /> * [http://www.backtothebible.org Back To The Bible]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Web_Directory:_Online_Ministries&diff=15318 Web Directory: Online Ministries 2006-04-05T14:53:06Z <p>Phoenixx: Online Ministries</p> <hr /> <div><br /> * [http://www.bible.com Bible.com] Proclaiming God's Word to the Nations<br /> * [http://www.gospelcom.net Gospelcom.net] An Alliance of Over 300 Online Ministries<br /> * [http://www.xxxchurch.com XXX Church] #1 Christian Porn Site</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Web_Directory:_Online_Ministries&diff=15317 Web Directory: Online Ministries 2006-04-05T14:51:00Z <p>Phoenixx: Online Ministries</p> <hr /> <div>[http://www.bible.com Bible.com/] Proclaiming God's Word to the Nations<br /> [http://www.xxxchurch.com XXX Church] #1 Christian Porn Site</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Web_Directory:_Online_Ministries&diff=15316 Web Directory: Online Ministries 2006-04-05T14:49:04Z <p>Phoenixx: Online Ministries</p> <hr /> <div>[http://www.xxxchurch.com/ XXX Church] #1 Christian Porn Site</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Web_Directory:_Online_Ministries&diff=15315 Web Directory: Online Ministries 2006-04-05T14:48:50Z <p>Phoenixx: Online Ministries</p> <hr /> <div>[http://www.xxxchurch.com/ |XXX Church] #1 Christian Porn Site</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Web_Directory:_Online_Ministries&diff=15314 Web Directory: Online Ministries 2006-04-05T14:48:21Z <p>Phoenixx: Online Ministries</p> <hr /> <div>[http://www.xxxchurch.com/|XXX Church] #1 Christian Porn Site</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Web_Directory:_Online_Ministries&diff=15313 Web Directory: Online Ministries 2006-04-05T14:48:05Z <p>Phoenixx: Online Ministries</p> <hr /> <div>[http://www.xxxchurch.com/|XXX Church]#1 Christian Porn Site</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Theologians_and_Evangelists&diff=15311 Theologians and Evangelists 2006-04-05T14:43:21Z <p>Phoenixx: Theologians and evangelists moved to Theologians and Evangelists</p> <hr /> <div>Theologians are people who commit to an indepth study of God and his word. Evangelists are those who proclaim the gospel to others. An example of a key theologian in history was [[Martin Luther]] who sparked the Protestant [[Reformation]]. An example of a man who has been devoted to evangelism is [[Billy Graham]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ---- <br /> <br /> '''Overviews'''<br /> * [[An overview of key theologians and evangelists in church history]]<br /> <br /> '''Key People'''<br /> * [[Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> '''See also'''<br /> * [[Authors]]<br /> * [[Bible characters]]<br /> * [[Saints]]<br /> * [[Song writers]]<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Return to [[Famous Christians]] contents page</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Theologians_and_evangelists&diff=15312 Theologians and evangelists 2006-04-05T14:43:21Z <p>Phoenixx: Theologians and evangelists moved to Theologians and Evangelists: Evangelists was spelt with a lower case e.</p> <hr /> <div>#redirect [[Theologians and Evangelists]]</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Theologians_and_Evangelists&diff=15310 Theologians and Evangelists 2006-04-05T14:40:52Z <p>Phoenixx: Theologians and Evangelists</p> <hr /> <div>Theologians are people who commit to an indepth study of God and his word. Evangelists are those who proclaim the gospel to others. An example of a key theologian in history was [[Martin Luther]] who sparked the Protestant [[Reformation]]. An example of a man who has been devoted to evangelism is [[Billy Graham]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ---- <br /> <br /> '''Overviews'''<br /> * [[An overview of key theologians and evangelists in church history]]<br /> <br /> '''Key People'''<br /> * [[Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> '''See also'''<br /> * [[Authors]]<br /> * [[Bible characters]]<br /> * [[Saints]]<br /> * [[Song writers]]<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Return to [[Famous Christians]] contents page</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Theologians_and_Evangelists&diff=15309 Theologians and Evangelists 2006-04-05T14:39:54Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>==Theologians and Evangelists==<br /> <br /> Theologians are people who commit to an indepth study of God and his word. Evangelists are those who proclaim the gospel to others. An example of a key theologian in history was [[Martin Luther]] who sparked the Protestant [[Reformation]]. An example of a man who has been devoted to evangelism is [[Billy Graham]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ---- <br /> <br /> '''Overviews'''<br /> * [[An overview of key theologians and evangelists in church history]]<br /> <br /> '''Key People'''<br /> * [[Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> '''See also'''<br /> * [[Authors]]<br /> * [[Bible characters]]<br /> * [[Saints]]<br /> * [[Song writers]]<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Return to [[Famous Christians]] contents page</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Theologians_and_Evangelists&diff=15308 Theologians and Evangelists 2006-04-05T14:38:20Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>Theologians are people who commit to an indepth study of God and his word. Evangelists are those who proclaim the gospel to others. An example of a key theologian in history was [[Martin Luther]] who sparked the Protestant [[Reformation]]. An example of a man who has been devoted to evangelism is [[Billy Graham]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ---- <br /> <br /> '''Overviews'''<br /> * [[An overview of key theologians and evangelists in church history]]<br /> <br /> '''Key People'''<br /> * [[Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Theologians and evangelsists:A|A]] | [[Theologians and evangelists:B|B]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:C|C]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:D|D]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:E|E]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:F|F]] | [[Theologians and evangelists:G|G]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:H|H]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:I|I]] | [[Theologians and evangelists:J|J]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:K|K]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:L|L]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:M|M]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:N|N]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:O|O]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:P|P]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:Q|Q]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:R|R]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:S|S]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:T|T]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:U|U]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:V|V]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:W|W]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:X|X]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:Y|Y]] | [[Theologians and evangelists:Z|Z]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''See also'''<br /> * [[Authors]]<br /> * [[Bible characters]]<br /> * [[Saints]]<br /> * [[Song writers]]<br /> <br /> <br /> {{theologians}}<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Return to [[Famous Christians]] contents page</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Theologians_and_Evangelists&diff=15307 Theologians and Evangelists 2006-04-05T14:35:49Z <p>Phoenixx: </p> <hr /> <div>''In brief'': Theologians are people who commit to an indepth study of God and his word. Evangelists are those who proclaim the gospel to others. An example of a key theologian in history was [[Martin Luther]] who sparked the Protestant [[Reformation]]. An example of a man who has been devoted to evangelism is [[Billy Graham]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ---- <br /> <br /> '''Overviews'''<br /> * [[An overview of key theologians and evangelists in church history]]<br /> <br /> '''Key People'''<br /> * [[Billy Graham]]<br /> * [[Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> [[Theologians and evangelsists:A|A]] | [[Theologians and evangelists:B|B]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:C|C]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:D|D]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:E|E]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:F|F]] | [[Theologians and evangelists:G|G]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:H|H]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:I|I]] | [[Theologians and evangelists:J|J]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:K|K]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:L|L]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:M|M]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:N|N]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:O|O]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:P|P]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:Q|Q]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:R|R]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:S|S]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:T|T]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:U|U]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:V|V]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:W|W]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:X|X]] | [[Theologians and evangelsists:Y|Y]] | [[Theologians and evangelists:Z|Z]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''See also'''<br /> * [[Authors]]<br /> * [[Bible characters]]<br /> * [[Saints]]<br /> * [[Song writers]]<br /> <br /> <br /> {{theologians}}<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Return to [[Famous Christians]] contents page</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther&diff=15306 Martin Luther 2006-04-05T14:32:22Z <p>Phoenixx: /* Luther's Theology of Grace */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:luther.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Luther at age 46 (Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1529)]]<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&lt;center&gt;The Luther Seal]]<br /> <br /> '''Martin Luther''' ([[November 10]], [[1483]]&amp;ndash;[[February 18]], [[1546]]) was a [[German people|German]] [[theology|theologian]], an [[Augustinian]] [[monasticism|monk]], and an [[ecclesiastical]] [[Protestant Reformers|reformer]] whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] and deeply influenced the [[doctrine]]s and culture of the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] traditions. Luther's call to the Church to return to the teachings of the [[Bible]] led to the formation of new [[tradition]]s within [[Christianity]] and to the [[Catholic Reformation|Counter-Reformation]], the [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] reaction to these movements. His contributions to Western civilization went beyond the life of the Christian Church. His translations of the Bible helped to develop a standard version of the [[German language]] and added several principles to the art of [[translation]]. His [[hymn]]s inspired the development of congregational singing in Christianity. His marriage on [[June 13]], [[1525]], to [[Katharina von Bora]] began a movement of [[clerical marriage]] within many Christian traditions.<br /> <br /> ==Luther's early life==<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was born to [[Hans Luther (15th century)|Hans]] and [[Margarette Luther]], ''née'' Lindemann, on [[November 10]], [[1483]], in [[Eisleben]], [[Germany]], and was baptized on the feast day of [[Martin of Tours|St. Martin of Tours]], after whom he was named. His father owned a [[copper]] mine in nearby [[Mansfeld]]. Having risen from the [[peasantry]], his father was determined to see his son ascend to [[civil service]] and bring further honor to the family. To that end, Hans sent young Martin to schools in Mansfeld, [[Magdeburg]] and [[Eisenach]].<br /> <br /> At the age of seventeen, in 1501, Luther entered the [[University of Erfurt]]. The young student received a [[Bachelor's degree]] in 1502 and a [[Master's degree]] in 1505. According to his father's wishes, he enrolled in the law school of that university.<br /> <br /> All that changed during a thunderstorm in the summer of 1505. A [[lightning bolt]] struck near to him as he was returning to school. Terrified, he cried out, &quot;Help, [[Saint Anne]]! I'll become a monk!&quot;{{ref|Brecht_48}}. His life spared, Luther left his law school and entered the [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[monastery]] in [[Erfurt]].<br /> <br /> ==Luther's struggle to find peace with God==<br /> [[Image:Luther_with_tonsure.gif|thumb|right|175px]] Young Brother Martin Luther fully dedicated himself to monastic life, the effort to do good works to please [[God]] and to serve others through prayer for their [[soul|souls]]. He devoted himself to [[fasting|fasts]], [[flagellation]]s, long hours in [[prayer]] and [[pilgrimage]] and constant [[confession]]. The more he tried to do for God, it seemed, the more aware he became of his sinfulness.<br /> <br /> [[Johann von Staupitz]]{{ref|Staupitz}}, Luther's superior, concluded the young man needed more work to distract him from excessive [[rumination]]. He ordered the monk to pursue an academic career. In [[1507]] Luther was ordained to the priesthood. In [[1508]] he began teaching [[theology]] at the [[University of Wittenberg]]. Luther received his Bachelor's degree in Biblical Studies on [[March 9]], [[1508]], and a Bachelor's degree in the ''[[Sentences]]'' by [[Peter Lombard]] (the main textbook of theology in the [[Middle Ages]]), in [[1509]]{{ref|Brecht_93}}. On [[October 19]], [[1512]], Martin Luther received the degree [[Doctor of Theology]] and on [[October 21]], [[1512]], he was &quot;received into the senate of the theological faculty&quot; and called to the position of ''Doctor in Biblia''{{ref|Brecht_126}}.<br /> <br /> == Luther's Theology of Grace ==<br /> The demanding discipline of earning academic and theological degrees and preparing lectures drove Martin Luther to study the Scriptures in depth. Influenced by [[Humanism]]'s call ''ad fontes'' (&quot;to the sources&quot;), he immersed himself in the study of the Bible and the early Church. Soon terms like [[penance]] and [[righteousness]] took on new meaning for Luther, and he became convinced that the Church had lost sight of several of the central truths of Christianity taught in Scripture—the most important of them being the doctrine of [[justification]] by faith alone. Luther began to teach that [[salvation]] is completely a gift of God's [[Divine grace|grace]] through [[Christ]] received by [[faith]]. <br /> <br /> Later, Luther defined and reintroduced the principle of the proper distinction between [[Law and Gospel]] that undergirded his theology of grace. Overall, Luther believed that this principle of interpretation was an essential starting point in the study of the Scriptures. Luther saw failure to distinguish [[Law and Gospel]] properly as the cause of the obstruction of the [[Gospel]] of [[Jesus]] in the Church of his day, which, he believed, gave rise to many fundamental theological errors in turn.<br /> <br /> ==The Indulgence Controversy==<br /> In addition to his duties as a professor, Martin Luther served as a preacher and confessor at the Castle Church, a &quot;foundation&quot; of [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony|Frederick the Wise]], [[Elector of Saxony]]. This church was named &quot;All Saints&quot; because it was the repository of his collection of [[relic|holy relics]]. This [[parish]] served both the Augustinian monastery and the university. It was in the performance of these duties that the young priest was confronted with the effects of obtaining [[indulgence]]s on the lives of everyday people.<br /> &lt;!--<br /> Please note: indulgences were very common and many more than just these two were available to common people. Moreover, there is no evidence that even Luther knew how the Archbishop financed the St. Peter's Indulgence. All they really knew is it would build a church for the bones of St. Peter <br /> --&gt;<br /> An indulgence is the remission (either full or partial) of temporal punishment still remaining for sins after their guilt has already been removed by absolution. A buyer could purchase one, either for himself or for one of his deceased relatives in [[purgatory]]. The [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar [[Johann Tetzel]] was enlisted to travel throughout [[Albert of Mainz|Archbishop Albert of Mainz's]] episcopal territories promoting and selling indulgences for the renovation of [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in [[Rome]]. [[Johann Tetzel|Tetzel]] was very successful at it. He urged: &quot;as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs&quot;{{ref|Brecht_182}}.<br /> <br /> As a priest concerned about the spiritual welfare of his parishioners, Luther saw this traffic in indulgences as an abuse that could mislead them into relying simply on the indulgences themselves to the neglect of the confession, true repentance, and satisfactions. Luther preached three sermons against indulgences in [[1516]] and [[1517]]. &lt;!-- Please see the 95 Theses page for discussion of whether Luther actually nailed the 95 Theses to the Castle Church door. Please discuss on talk page before adding more about them here, since these sentences are summaries of that whole article --&gt; A popular myth states that on [[October 31]] [[1517]], according to traditional accounts, Luther's [[95 Theses]] were nailed to the door of the Castle Church as an open invitation to debate them{{ref|Brecht_200}}. However, it is now known that Luther never actually nailed his doctrines to a church door, it is just reverberated by tour guides to attract tourists. The Theses condemned greed and worldliness in the Church as an abuse and asked for a theological disputation on what indulgences could grant. Luther did not challenge the authority of the pope to grant indulgences in these theses.<br /> <br /> The [[95 Theses]] were quickly translated into German, widely copied and printed. Within two weeks they had spread throughout Germany, and within two months throughout Europe. This was one of the first events in history that was profoundly affected by the [[printing press]], which made the distribution of documents easier and more widespread.<br /> <br /> ==Response of the Papacy==<br /> [[Image:Martin Luther Woodcut.jpg|thumb|250 px|Turning this woodcut upside-down can show how Martin Luther's enemies thought of him.]]<br /> After disregarding Luther as &quot;a drunken German who wrote the Theses&quot; who &quot;when sober will change his mind,&quot; [[Pope Leo X]] ordered the Dominican professor of theology, [[Sylvester Mazzolini]], called from his birthplace [[Priero]], Prierias (also Prieras), in 1518, to inquire into the matter. Prierias recognized Luther's implicit opposition to the authority of the pope by being at variance with a [[Papal bull|papal bull]], declared him a heretic, and wrote a scholastic refutation of his theses. It asserted papal authority over the Church and denounced every departure from it as a [[heresy]]. Luther replied in kind, and a controversy developed.<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, Luther took part in an Augustinian convention at Heidelberg, where he presented theses on the slavery of man to sin and on divine grace. In the course of the controversy on indulgences, the question arose of the absolute power and authority of the pope, since the doctrine of the &quot;Treasury of the Church,&quot; the &quot;Treasury of Merits,&quot; which undergirded the doctrine and practice of indulgences, was based on the Bull ''Unigenitus'' ([[1343]]) of [[Pope Clement VI]]. Because of his opposition to that doctrine, Luther was branded a heretic, and the pope, who had determined to suppress his views, summoned him to Rome. <br /> <br /> Yielding, however, to the [[Frederick the Wise|Elector Frederick]], who the pope hoped would become the next Holy Roman Emperor and who was unwilling to part with his theologian, the pope did not press the matter, and the cardinal legate [[Cajetan]] was deputed to receive Luther's submission at Augsburg (Oct. 1518). <br /> <br /> Luther, while professing his implicit obedience to the Church, now boldly denied papal authority, and appealed first &quot;from the pope not well informed to the pope who should be better informed&quot; and then (Nov. 28) to a general [[Ecumenical Councils|council]]. Luther now declared that the papacy formed no part of the original and immutable essence of the Church.<br /> <br /> Desiring to remain on friendly terms with Luther, the pope made a final attempt to reach a peaceful resolution of the conflict with him. A conference with the papal chamberlain [[Karl von Miltitz]] at [[Altenburg]] in January 1519 led Luther to agree to remain silent as long as his opponents would, to write a humble letter to the pope, and to compose a treatise demonstrating his reverence for the Catholic Church. The letter was written but never sent, since it contained no retraction. In the German treatise he composed later, Luther, while recognizing purgatory, clergy/laity distinction, indulgences, and the invocation of the saints, denied all effect of indulgences on purgatory. <br /> <br /> When [[Johann Eck]] challenged Luther's colleague Carlstadt to a disputation at [[Leipzig]], Luther joined in the debate ([[27 June]]&amp;ndash;[[18 July]] [[1519]]). In the course of this debate he denied the divine right of the papal office and authority, holding that the &quot;power of the keys&quot; had been given to the Church (i.e., to the congregation of the faithful). He denied that membership in the western Catholic Church under the pope was necessary to salvation, maintaining the validity of the eastern [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Greek (Orthodox) Church]]. After the debate, Johann Eck claimed that he had forced Luther to admit the similarity of his own doctrine to that of [[Jan Hus]], who had been [[execution by burning|burned at the stake]]. Eck viewed this as corroborating his own claim that Luther was &quot;the Saxon Hus&quot; and an arch heretic.<br /> <br /> == The breach widens==<br /> ===Luther's thought develops===<br /> There was no longer hope of peace. Luther's writings were now circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519, and students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther, who had been joined by [[Philipp Melanchthon|Melanchthon]] in 1518, and now published his shorter commentary on Galatians and his ''Operationes in Psalmos'' (''Work on the Psalms''), while at the same time he received deputations from Italy and from the [[Utraquist]]s of Bohemia. <br /> <br /> These controversies necessarily led Luther to develop his theses further, and in his &lt;cite&gt;Sermon on the Blessed Sacrament of the Holy and True Body of Christ, and the Brotherhoods&lt;/cite&gt;, he set forth the significance of the [[Eucharist]] that it is for the forgiveness of sins and the strengthening of faith for those who receive it, he advocated that a council be called to restore communion in both kinds for the laity. <br /> <br /> The Lutheran concept of the Church, wholly based on immediate relation to the Christ who gives himself in preaching and the sacraments, was already developed in his ''Von dem Papsttum zu Rom'' (''On the Papacy in Rome''), a reply to the attack of the Franciscan [[Augustin von Alveld]] at Leipzig (June 1520); while in his ''Sermon von guten Werken'' (''Sermon on Good Works''), delivered in the spring of 1520, he controverted the Catholic doctrine of good works and works of [[supererogation]], holding that the works of the believer are truly good in any secular calling (vocation) ordered of God.<br /> <br /> ===The treatises of 1520===<br /> ====''To the German Nobility''====<br /> The disputation at Leipzig (1519) brought Luther into contact with the humanists, particularly Melanchthon, [[Johann Reuchlin|Reuchlin]], [[Erasmus]], and associates of the knight [[Ulrich von Hutten]], who, in turn, influenced the knight [[Franz von Sickingen]]. Von Sickingen and Silvester of Schauenburg wanted to place Luther under their protection by inviting him to their fortresses in the event that it would not be safe for him to remain in Saxony because of the threatened papal ban. <br /> <br /> Under these circumstances, complicated by the crisis then confronting the German nobles, Luther issued his ''To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation'' (Aug. 1520), committing to the [[laity]], as spiritual [[priest]]s, the reformation required by God but neglected by the pope and the clergy. For the first time of many, Luther here publicly referred to the pope as the [[Antichrist]].{{ref|nobility}}<br /> The reforms Luther proposed concerned not only points of doctrine but also ecclesiastical abuses: the diminution of the number of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s and demands of the papal court; the abolition of [[annates]]; the recognition of secular government; the renunciation of papal claims to [[temporal power]]; the abolition of the [[interdict]] and abuses connected with the [[excommunication|ban]]; the abolition of harmful [[pilgrimage]]s; the reform of [[mendicant order]]s to eliminate wrongdoing; the elimination of the excessive number of holy days; the suppression of nunneries, beggary, and luxury; the reform of the universities; the abrogation of the [[clerical celibacy]]; reunion with the Bohemians; and a general reform of public morality.<br /> <br /> ====''The Babylonian Captivity''====<br /> Luther employed doctrinal polemics in his [[On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church|''Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church'']], especially with regard to the [[sacrament]]s.<br /> <br /> With regard to the Eucharist, he advocated restoring the cup to the [[laity]], called into question the [[dogma]] of [[Transubstantiation]] while affirming the real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, and rejected the teaching that the Eucharist was a sacrifice offered to God. <br /> <br /> With regard to [[Baptism]], he taught that it brings [[Justification (theology)|justification]] only if conjoined with saving faith in the recipient; however, it remained the foundation of [[salvation]] even for those who might later fall and be reclaimed. <br /> <br /> As for [[penance]], its essence consists in the words of promise ([[Absolution (religious)|absolution]]) received by faith. Only these three can be regarded as sacraments because of their [[divine]] institution and the divine promises of salvation connected with them; but, strictly speaking, only Baptism and the Eucharist are sacraments, since only they have &quot;divinely instituted visible sign[s]&quot;: water in Baptism and bread and wine in the Eucharist. Luther denied in this document that [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]], [[Catholic marriage|Matrimony]], [[Holy Orders]], and [[Anointing of the Sick|Extreme Unction]] were sacraments.<br /> <br /> ====''Freedom of a Christian''====<br /> In like manner, the full development of Luther's doctrine of salvation and the Christian life is seen in his ''On the Freedom of a Christian'' (published [[November 20]], [[1520]]). Here he required complete union with Christ by means of the Word through faith, entire freedom of the Christian as a priest and king set above all outward things, and perfect love of one's neighbor. The three works may be considered among the chief writings of Luther on the Reformation.<br /> <br /> ===The excommunication of Luther===<br /> On [[June 15]], [[1520]], the Pope warned Martin Luther with the [[papal bull]] ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'' that he risked [[excommunication]] unless he recanted 41 points of doctrine culled from his writings within 60 days. In October [[1520]], at the instance of Miltitz, Luther sent his ''On the Freedom of a Christian'' to the pope, adding the significant phrase: &quot;I submit to no laws of interpreting the word of God.&quot; Meanwhile, it had been rumored in August that Eck had arrived at Meissen with a papal [[Ban (law)|ban]], which was actually pronounced there on [[September 21]]. This last effort of Luther's for peace was followed on [[December 12]] by his burning of the bull, which was to take effect on the expiration of 120 days, and the papal [[decretal]]s at Wittenberg, a proceeding defended in his ''Warum des Papstes und seiner Jünger Bücher verbrannt sind'' and his ''Assertio omnium articulorum''. [[Pope Leo X]] excommunicated Luther on [[January 3]],[[1521]], in the bull ''[[Decet Romanum Pontificem]]''.<br /> <br /> The execution of the ban, however, was prevented by the pope's relations with [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony]] and by the new emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who, in view of the papal attitude toward him and the feeling of the [[Reichstag (institution)|Diet]], found it inadvisable to lend his aid to measures against Luther.<br /> <br /> ==Diet of Worms==<br /> {{main|Diet of Worms}}<br /> [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]] opened the imperial [[Diet of Worms]] on [[January 22]], [[1521]]. Luther was summoned to renounce or reaffirm his views and was given an imperial guarantee of safe conduct to ensure his safe passage.<br /> <br /> On [[April 16]], Luther appeared before the Diet. Johann Eck, an assistant of Archbishop of Trier, presented Luther with a table filled with copies of his writings. Eck asked Luther if the books were his and if he still believed what these works taught. Luther requested time to think about his answer. It was granted. Luther prayed, consulted with friends and mediators and presented himself before the Diet the next day. When the matter came before the Diet the next day, Counsellor Eck asked Luther to plainly answer the question: &quot;Would Luther reject his books and the errors they contain?&quot; Luther replied: &quot;Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason&amp;mdash;I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other&amp;mdash;my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe.&quot; According to tradition, Luther is then said to have spoken these words: &quot;Here I stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen&quot;{{ref|Bainton_142}}.<br /> <br /> Over the next few days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. Before a decision was reached, Luther left Worms. During his return to Wittenberg, he disappeared.<br /> <br /> The Emperor issued the [[Edict of Worms]] on [[May 25]], [[1521]], declaring Martin Luther an [[outlaw]] and a [[heresy|heretic]] and banning his literature.<br /> <br /> ==Exile at the Wartburg Castle==<br /> [[Image:Wartburg_eisenach1.jpg|thumb|right|Wartburg Castle in [[Eisenach]]]]<br /> Luther's disappearance during his return trip was planned. Frederick the Wise arranged for Luther to be seized on his way from the Diet by a company of masked horsemen, who carried him to [[Wartburg Castle]] at Eisenach, where he stayed for about a year. He grew a wide flaring beard, took on the garb of a knight, and assumed the pseudonym Junker Jörg (Knight George). During this period of forced sojourn in the world, Luther was still hard at work upon his celebrated translation of the [[New Testament]], though he could not rely on the isolation of a monastery. <br /> [[Image:Hugo Vogel Luther Wartburg.jpg|thumb|left|Martin Luther Preaching at the Wartburg, by Hugo Vogel]]<br /> With Luther's residence in the Wartburg began a constructive period of his career as a reformer; while at the same time the struggle was inaugurated against those who, claiming to proceed from the same Evangelical basis, were deemed by him to swing to the opposite extreme and to hinder, if not prevent, all constructive measures. In his &quot;desert&quot; or &quot;Patmos&quot; (as he called it in his letters) of the Wartburg, moreover, he began his translation of the Bible, of which the New Testament was printed in September 1522. Here, too, besides other pamphlets, he prepared the first portion of his German postilla and his ''Von der Beichte'' (''Concerning Confession''), in which he denied compulsory confession, although he admitted the wholesomeness of voluntary private confessions. He also wrote a polemic against Archbishop Albrecht, which forced him to desist from reopening the sale of indulgences; while in his attack on Jacobus Latomus he set forth his views on the relation of grace and the law, as well as on the nature of the grace communicated by Christ. Here he distinguished the objective grace of God to the sinner, who, believing, is justified by God because of the justice of Christ, from the saving grace dwelling within sinful man; while at the same time he emphasized the insufficiency of this &quot;beginning of justification,&quot; as well as the persistence of sin after baptism and the sin still inherent in every good work.<br /> <br /> Although his stay at Wartburg kept Luther hidden from public view, Luther often received letters from his friends and allies asking for his views and advice. For example, [[Philipp Melanchthon]] wrote to him and asked how to answer the charge that the reformers neglected pilgrimages, fasts and other traditional forms of piety. Luther replied on [[August 1]], [[1521]]: &quot;If you are a preacher of mercy, do not preach an imaginary but the true mercy. If the mercy is true, you must therefore bear the true, not an imaginary sin. God does not save those who are only imaginary sinners. Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides. We, however, says Peter ([[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] 3:13) are looking forward to a new heaven and a new earth where justice will reign&quot;{{ref|letter99}}.<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, some of the Saxon clergy, notably [[Bartholomäus Bernhardi of Feldkirchen]], had renounced the vow of celibacy, while others, including Melanchthon, had assailed the validity of monastic vows. Luther in his ''De votis monasticis'' (''Concerning Monastic Vows''), though more cautious, concurred, on the ground that the vows were generally taken &quot;with the intention of salvation or seeking justification.&quot; With the approval of Luther in his ''De abroganda missa privata'' (''Concerning the Abrogation of the Private Mass''), but against the firm opposition of the prior, the Wittenberg Augustinians began changes in worship and did away with the mass. Their violence and intolerance, however, were displeasing to Luther, and early in December he spent a few days among them. Returning to the Wartburg, he wrote his ''Eine treue Vermahnung . . . vor Aufruhr und Empörung'' (''A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion''); but in Wittenberg, Carlstadt and the ex-Augustinian [[Gabriel Zwilling]] demanded the abolition of the private mass, communion in both kinds, the removal of pictures from churches, and the abrogation of the magistracy.<br /> <br /> == Return to Wittenberg and the ''Invocavit Sermons'' ==<br /> Around Christmas [[1521]], Anabaptists from Zwickau added to the anarchy. Thoroughly opposed to such radical views and fearful of their results, Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg [[March 6]], [[1522]], and the Zwickau prophets left the city. For eight days beginning on [[March 9]], Invocavit Sunday, and concluding on the following Sunday, Luther preached eight sermons that would become known as the ''Invocavit Sermons''. In these sermons Luther counseled careful reform that took into consideration the consciences of those who were not yet persuaded to embrace reform. Communion in one kind (the consecrated bread) was restored for a time, the consecrated cup given only to those of the laity who desired it. He was thought by his hearers John Agricola and Jerome Schurf to have accomplished his goal of quelling unrest. The [[canon of the mass]], giving it its sacrificial character, was now omitted. Since the former practice of penance had been abolished, communicants were now required to declare their intention to commune and to seek consolation in Christian [[confession]] and absolution. This new form of service was set forth by Luther in his ''Formula missæ et communionis'' (''Form of the Mass and Communion'', 1523), and in 1524 the first Wittenberg hymnal appeared with four of his own hymns. Since, however, his writings were forbidden in that part of Saxon ruled by [[George, Duke of Saxony|Duke George]], Luther declared, in his ''Über die weltliche Gewalt, wie weit man ihr Gehorsam schuldig sei'' (''Temporal Authority: to What Extent It Should Be Obeyed''), that the civil authority could enact no laws for the soul, herein denying to a Catholic what he permitted an Evangelical.<br /> <br /> == Martin Luther's marriage and family ==<br /> [[April 8]], [[1523]], Luther wrote Wenceslaus Link: &quot;Yesterday I received nine nuns from their captivity in the Nimbschen convent.&quot; Luther had arranged for Torgau burgher Leonhard Koppe on [[April 4]] to assist twelve nuns to escape from Marien-thron Cistercian monastery in Nimbschen near Grimma in Ducal Saxony. He transported them out of the convent in herring barrels. Three of the nuns went to be with their relatives, leaving the nine that were brought to Wittenberg. One of them was [[Katharina von Bora]]. All of them but she were happily provided for. In May and June [[1523]], it was thought that she would be married to a Wittenberg University student, Jerome Paumgartner, but his family most likely prevented it. Dr. Caspar Glatz was the next prospective husband put forward, but Katharina had &quot;neither desire nor love&quot; for him. She made it known that she wanted to marry either Luther himself or Nicholas von Amsdorf. Luther did not feel that he was a fit husband considering his being excommunicated by the pope and outlawed by the emperor. In May or early June [[1525]], it became known in Luther's circle that he intended to marry Katharina. Forestalling any objections from friends against Katharina, Luther acted quickly: on the evening of Tuesday, [[June 13]], [[1525]], Luther was legally married to Katharina, whom he would affectionately call &quot;Katy.&quot; Katy moved into her husband's home, the former Augustinian monastery in Wittenberg, and they began their family: The Luthers had three boys and three girls:<br /> *Hans, born [[June 7]], [[1526]], studied law, became a court official, and died in [[1575]]. <br /> *Elizabeth, born [[December 10]], [[1527]], prematurely died on [[August 3]], [[1528]]. <br /> *Magdalena, born [[May 5]], [[1529]], died in her father's arms [[September 20]], [[1542]]. Her death was particularly hard to bear for Luther and his wife.<br /> *Martin, Jr., born [[November 9]], [[1531]], studied theology but never had a regular pastoral call before his death in [[1565]]. <br /> *Paul, born [[January 28]], [[1533]], became a physician. He fathered six children before his death on [[March 8]], [[1593]] and the male line of the Luther family continued through him to [[John Ernest Luther|John Ernest]], ending in [[1759]]. <br /> *Margaretha, born [[December 17]], [[1534]], married [[George von Kunheim]] of the noble, wealthy Prussian family, but died in [[1570]] at the age of 36. Her descendants have continued to the present time.<br /> <br /> ==The Peasants' War==<br /> The [[Peasants' War]] (1524&amp;ndash;25) was in many ways a response to the preaching of Luther and others. Revolts by the peasantry had existed on a small scale since the 14th century, but many peasants mistakenly believed that Luther's attack on the Church and the hierarchy meant that the reformers would support an attack on the social hierarchy as well, because of the close ties between the secular princes and the princes of the Church that Luther condemned. Revolts that broke out in Swabia, Franconia, and Thuringia in [[1524]] gained support among peasants and disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt at that period. Gaining momentum and a new leader in [[Thomas Muentzer|Thomas Münzer]], the revolts turned into an all-out war, the experience of which played an important role in the founding of the [[Anabaptist]] movement. Initially, Luther seemed to many to support the peasants, condemning the oppressive practices of the nobility that had incited many of the peasants. As the war continued, and especially as atrocities at the hands of the peasants increased, the revolt became an embarrassment to Luther, who now professed forcefully to be against the revolt; since Luther relied on support and protection from the princes, he was afraid of alienating them. In ''[[Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants]]'' ([[1525]]), he encouraged the nobility to visit swift and bloody punishment upon the peasants. Many of the revolutionaries considered Luther's words a betrayal. Others withdrew once they realized that there was neither support from the Church nor from its main opponent. The war in Germany ended in 1525, when rebel forces were put down by the armies of the [[Swabian League]].<br /> <br /> ==Luther's German Bible==<br /> {{main|Luther Bible}}<br /> [[Image:Lutherbibel.jpg|thumb|240px|Luther's 1534 bible]]<br /> Luther translated the [[Bible]] into [[German language|German]] to make it more accessible to the common people. He began the task of translating the [[New Testament]] alone in [[1521]] during his stay in the [[Wartburg]] castle. It was completed and published in September, [[1522]]. The entire [[Bible]] appeared in a six-part edition in [[1534]] and was a collaborative effort of Luther, [[Johannes Bugenhagen]], [[Justus Jonas]], [[Caspar Creuziger]], [[Philipp Melanchthon]], [[Matthew Aurogallus]], and [[George Rörer]]. Luther worked on refining the translation for the rest of his life, having a hand in the edition that was published in the year of his death, [[1546]]. The [[Luther Bible]] by reason of its widespread circulation facilitated the emergence of the modern [[German language]] by standardizing it for the peoples of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] that would become [[Germany]] in the [[nineteenth century]], and it is considered a landmark in [[German literature]].<br /> <br /> == Transformations in liturgy and church government ==<br /> Luther marked a further step in his revision of the liturgy by his &lt;cite&gt;Deutsche Messe&lt;cite&gt; [&lt;cite&gt;German Mass&lt;cite&gt;] in 1526, making provision for week-day services and for catechetical instruction. He strongly objected, however, to making a new law of the forms, and urged the retention of other good liturgies. While Luther advocated Christian liberty in liturgical matters in this way, he also spoke out in favor of maintaining and establishing liturgical uniformity among those sharing the same faith in a given area. He saw in liturgical uniformity a fitting outward expression of unity in the faith, while in liturgical variation, an indication of or invitation to doctrinal variation. He did not consider liturgical innovation and change a virtue, especially not one to be exercised by individual Christians or congregations; he was content to reform what he had inherited from the past.<br /> <br /> The gradual transformation of the administration of baptism was accomplished in the &lt;cite&gt;Taufbüchlein&lt;cite&gt; [''Baptismal Booklet''] (1523, 1526). <br /> <br /> In May, 1525, the first evangelical ordination took place at Wittenberg. Luther had rejected the Roman Catholic view of ordination as a sacrament. A service of ordination with the laying-on of hands with prayer in a solemn congregational service was considered a fitting ecclesiastical rite. To fill the vacuum of the lack of higher ecclesiastical authority—few bishops in the German lands embraced Luther's doctrine—as early as 1525 Luther held that the secular authorities should take part in the administration of the Church, as in making appointments to ecclesiastical office and in directing visitations. Nevertheless, the discharge of these functions did not appertain to the secular authorities as such, and Luther would have gladly vested them in an evangelical episcopate had a larger number of bishops become evangelicals. He even declared in 1542 that the evangelical princes themselves &quot;must be necessity-bishops,&quot; and even went so far as to meditate (letter of Mar. 29, 1527) a &quot;congregation of Christians&quot; with full ecclesiastical powers, but determined to be guided by the course of events and to wait until parishes and schools were provided with the proper persons. Since, however, the result of the Saxon visitation gave no encouragement to this project, it was deemed far more important first to win non-Christians to the Christian faith through the Gospel, preserving the external form of the Church as it was at the beginning of the Reformation. The visitation accordingly took place in 1527-29, Luther writing the preface to Melanchthon's &lt;cite&gt;Unterricht der Visitatoren an die Pfarrherrn&lt;cite&gt; (''Instruction for the Visitors of Parish Pastors''), and himself acting as a visitor in one of the districts after Oct., 1528, while, as a result of his observations, he wrote both his catechisms in 1529. At the same time he took the keenest interest in education, conferring with [[George Spalatin]] in 1524 on plans for a school system, and declared that it was the duty of the civil authorities to provide schools and to see that parents sent their children to them. He also advocated the establishment of elementary schools for the instruction of girls. In the meantime, Lutheran churches in Scandinavia and many of the Baltic States, as well as the [[Moravians]], continued to maintain the [[Historic Episcopate]] and [[apostolic succession]], even though they had adopted Luther's anti-papal theology.<br /> <br /> == Eucharistic views and controversies ==<br /> In the meantime, the nature of the [[Eucharist]] had become a theme on which Luther found himself obliged to articulate his doctrine fully and polemically. Rejecting the [[Roman Catholic]] doctrine of [[Transubstantiation]], he nevertheless maintained the [[Real Presence]] of the body and blood of Christ in the sacramental bread and wine. He stood by the simple, literal meaning of the [[Words of Institution]] (&quot;This is my body,&quot; &quot;This is my blood&quot;). Refusing to define the mystery of the Eucharist by concepts such as [[Consubstantiation]], Luther utilized the [[patristic]] analogy for the doctrine of the Personal Union of the two natures in [[Jesus Christ]] to illustrate his eucharistic doctrine: &quot;by the analogy of the iron put into the fire whereby both fire and iron are united in the red-hot iron and yet each continues unchanged,&quot; a concept which he called the &quot;[[Sacramental Union]].&quot; (''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', F.L. Cross, Ed., London: Oxford, 1958, p. 337). <br /> <br /> Luther's doctrine distinguished him from [[Carlstadt]], [[Zwingli]], [[Leo Jud]], and [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Œcolampadius]], who went &quot;further&quot; by rejecting the [[Real Presence]] altogether. [[Carlstadt]], [[Zwingli]] and [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Œcolampadius]] offered differing interpretations of the words of institution: [[Carlstadt]] interpreted the &quot;This&quot; of &quot;This is my body&quot; as Christ's action of pointing to himself, [[Zwingli]] interpreted the &quot;is&quot; as &quot;signifies&quot;, and [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Œcolampadius]] interpreted &quot;my body&quot; as &quot;a sign of my body.&quot; In the controversy that ensued, Luther replied to [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Œcolampadius]] in the preface to the ''Syngramma Suevicum'' [''Swabian Writing''], and also set forth his views in his ''Sermon von den Sakramenten'' . . . ''Wider die Schwärmgeister'' [''Sermon on the Sacrament'' . . . ''Against the Fanatical Spirits''] and ''Dass diese Worte . . . noch feststehen'' [''That These Words . . . Still Stand Firm''] (spring, 1527), and, more exhaustively, in his ''Vom Abendmahl Christi Bekenntnis'' [''Confession on Christ's Supper''] (1528). <br /> <br /> In view of the perils to Protestantism in the measures of the [[Diet of Speyer]] in 1529 and the coalition of the emperor with France and the pope, the Landgrave Philip desired a union of all the adherents of the Reformation, but Luther declared himself opposed to any alliance which might aid heresy. He accepted, however, the landgrave's invitation to a conference at [[Marburg Colloquy|Marburg (Oct. 1-3, 1529)]] to settle the matters in controversy. At Marburg, Luther opposed Œcolampadius, while Melanchthon was the antagonist of Zwingli. Although they found an unexpected harmony in other respects, no agreement could be reached regarding the Eucharist. Luther therefore refused to call his opponents brethren, even while he wished them peace and love. Luther was convinced that God had blinded Zwingli's eyes so that he could not see the true doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Luther denounced Zwingli and his followers at this time as &quot;fanatics,&quot; &quot;patricides,&quot; &quot;matricides,&quot; &quot;fratricides,&quot; &quot;devils,&quot; &quot;knaves,&quot; &quot;heretics,&quot; &quot;rioters,&quot; &quot;hypocrites,&quot; and the like. <br /> <br /> The princes themselves then subscribed to the Schwabach Articles, upheld by Luther as a condition of alliance with them. Luther's basis for his Eucharistic doctrine was not a mere literal interpretation of the words of institution, but rather thankfulness for Jesus' bodily sacrifice and the administration of this very same body. Luther emphasized the absolute unity of the divine with the human in Christ to explain the actual presence; while Christ's presence is &quot;repletive&quot; (filling all places at once), his omnipresence in the Eucharist is especially &quot;definitive&quot; (unbound by space). <br /> <br /> On the other hand, Luther taught with equal clearness that participation in itself is of no avail without faith. He insisted that the impious and even beasts in partaking of the consecrated elements partake of the body and blood of Christ, but the unworthy partake unto damnation. Also, while he disputed the view that the Eucharist is a mere memorial, he fully recognized the commemorative element in it. As regards the effect of the Sacrament on the faithful, he laid special stress on the words &quot;given for you,&quot; and hence on the atonement and forgiveness through the death of Christ.<br /> <br /> ==The Small and Large Catechisms==<br /> In [[1528]], Frederick asked Luther to tour the local churches to determine the quality of the peasants' Christian education. Luther wrote in the preface to the Small [[Catechism]], &quot;Mercy! Good God! what manifold misery I beheld! The common people, especially in the villages, have no knowledge whatever of Christian doctrine, and, alas! many pastors are altogether incapable and incompetent to teach.&quot; In response, Luther prepared the Small and Large Catechisms. They are instructional and devotional material on what Luther considered the fundamentals of the Christian faith, namely the [[Ten Commandments]]; the [[Apostles' Creed]]; the [[Lord's Prayer]]; [[Baptism]]; [[Confession]] and Absolution; and the [[Eucharist]]. The Small Catechism was supposed to be read by the people themselves, the Large Catechism, by the pastors. The two catechisms are still popular instructional materials among [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]<br /> .<br /> <br /> == The Diet of Augsburg and the question of civil resistance ==<br /> Under the same perilous conditions which had made desirable an alliance of all adherents of the Reformation, the estates convened with the emperor at Augsburg in 1530, when the relation of the empire to Protestantism was definitely to be determined. Luther, despised by emperor and empire, remained at Coburg, but the confession there presented by Melanchthon was essentially based upon his labors. The latter, while refraining from an authoritative attitude, was little pleased by the smooth and cautious procedure of Melanchthon, and saw no chance of harmony of doctrine except in abolishment of the papacy, although he hoped for official toleration of both religions in the empire. While the recess of the diet gave the Protestants only a short time to make their submission, the emperor, urged on by threatened war with the Turks and by the Schmalkald League of the Protestant princes and cities, made further attempts to secure harmony, which led to the Religious Peace of Nuremberg in 1532 (q.v.), to last until a general council should be called to make a final decision. Since the Diet of Speyer (1529) the question had become vital whether, in case the emperor refused peace, the princes were justified in, or even bound to, armed resistance. Until now Luther had held that even wrongful acts of the emperor in no way released his subjects from obedience, and had been unfavorable to offensive and defensive alliances between Evangelical princes, preserving this attitude even in regard to the Schmalkald League. His position was somewhat modified, however, by the opinions of the jurists that in cases of public and notorious injustice the existing imperial laws (&quot;the emperor himself in his laws&quot;) warranted such resistance. Accepting this, he nevertheless referred judgment on the present conditions to the jurists, and not to the theologians. In his Warnung an die lieben Deutschen (1531), nevertheless, he openly advocated resistance in a righteous cause, while in letters written in 1539 he went back still further to the general requirements of natural law.<br /> <br /> ==Luther's other writings==<br /> {{mergefrom|Luther’s View of The Holy Ghost (God) as a Rhetorician in Bondage of the Will}} <br /> [[Image:Autograph of Martin Luther.png|right|frame|[[Autograph]] of Martin Luther.]]<br /> The number of books attributed to Martin Luther is nothing short of impressive. However, some Luther scholars contend that many of the works were at least drafted by some of his good friends like [[Melanchthon]]. Luther's fame provided a much larger potential audience than his &amp;mdash; at least as learned &amp;mdash; friends could have obtained under their own names. <br /> <br /> His books explain the settings of the [[epistles]] and show the conformity of the books of the Bible to each other. Of special note would be his writings about the [[Epistle to the Galatians]], in which he compares himself to the [[Apostle Paul]] in his defense of the [[Gospel]] (for example, the faith-building commentary in ''Luther and the Epistle to the Galatians''). <br /> <br /> Luther also wrote about church administration and wrote much about the Christian home.<br /> <br /> Luther's writing was very polemical, and when he was passionate about a subject, he would often insult his opponents. For example, in the preface to &lt;cite&gt;De Servo Arbitrio&lt;/cite&gt; (''[[On the Bondage of the Will]]''), a response to [[Erasmus]]'s ''Diatribe seu collatio de libero arbitrio'' (''Discussion, or Collation, concerning free will''), Luther writes, <br /> :&quot;your book ... struck me as so worthless and poor that my heart went out to you for having defiled your lovely, brilliant flow of language with such vile stuff. I thought it outrageous to convey material of so low a quality in the trappings of such rare eloquence; it is like using gold or silver dishes to carry garden rubbish or dung.&quot; <br /> <br /> Luther, as well as the other reformers, were quite intolerant of others' beliefs,{{ref|Armstrong}} and this may have exacerbated the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation in Germany]]. This intolerance was displayed in [[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]] which is remembered even today (see [[Martin Luther and the Jews]]). <br /> <br /> However, an indication that Luther really meant what he said in his &lt;cite&gt;De servo arbitrio&lt;/cite&gt; and was not simply carried away by [[rhetoric]] is that, twelve years later, when Luther's friends began collecting his writings, he was able to say that, of all the things he had written, he considered only his [[catechism]] and his book &lt;cite&gt;On the Bondage of the Will&lt;/cite&gt; to be truly worthwhile.<br /> <br /> Luther's work contains a number of statements that modern readers would consider rather crude. It should be remembered that Luther received many communications from throughout Europe from people who could write anonymously, that is, without the spectre of mass media making their communications known. No public figure today could write in the manner of the correspondences Luther received or in the way Luther responded to them. Opinions today can be immediately shared electronically with a wide audience. At least one such statement would not be heard from most modern pastors: He regularly told the Devil off.<br /> <br /> ==Martin Luther and the Jews==<br /> {{main|Martin Luther and the Jews}}<br /> Luther's anti-Jewish rhetoric and doctrines are often described as [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] {{ref|Johnson_1}} or examples of [[anti-Judaism]]. {{ref|Siemon-Netto_19}} Luther had expected that presenting his understanding of the Christian gospel to the Jews would [[religious conversion|convert]] them, but when his efforts failed, he became embittered and recommended their harsh persecution. In his pamphlet ''Von den Juden und ihren Lügen'' (''[[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]]''), published in 1543, he wrote that Jews' [[synagogue]]s should be set on fire, [[Siddur|prayerbook]]s destroyed, [[rabbi]]s forbidden to preach, homes &quot;smashed and destroyed,&quot; property seized, money confiscated, and that these &quot;poisonous envenomed worms&quot; be drafted into forced labor or expelled &quot;for all time.&quot; {{ref|OntheJews}}<br /> <br /> British historian [[Paul Johnson]] has called ''On the Jews and their Lies'' the &quot;first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]].&quot;{{ref|Johnson}} Australian Lutheran pastor Russell Briese's comments at the Council of Christians and Jews at the Great Synagogue in Sydney: &quot;historians are at a loss to find a direct link between the anti-semitism of Luther's time and that of Hitler's campaign.&quot; {{ref|Briese}}. Four centuries later, the [[Nazism|Nazis]] cited the pamphlet to justify the [[Final Solution]].{{ref|Grislis}} Since the 1980s, [[Lutheranism|Lutheran church]] bodies and organizations have begun a process of formally disassociating themselves from these writings.<br /> <br /> ==Martin Luther and the medieval persecution of witches==<br /> Luther shared the common medieval superstition against [[witchcraft]] as inimical to [[Christianity]]. The persecution of witches and warlocks took place in [[Protestant]] as well as in [[Roman Catholic]] countries in Middle Europe during and after the [[Reformation]]. Not only Luther but [[John Calvin]] supported this persecution as well. They felt it to be in accordance with Exodus 22:18. {{ref|exodus}} Luther mentioned the hunting down of witches in a few of his sermons (e.g. that of May 6, 1526: WA 16, 551f., cf. also WA 3, 1179f, WA 29, 520f). In a sermon of August 25, 1538 Luther said: &quot;You must not have pity on witches, I myself would burn them&quot; („Mit Hexen muß man kein Mitleid haben; ich wollte sie selber verbrennen“) (WA 22, 782ff.). {{ref|Haustein}} Luther believed witchcraft to be a sin against the Second Commandment. {{ref|SC}}<br /> <br /> ==Luther's last journey and death==<br /> Martin Luther's final journey to Mansfeld Eisleben came about because of his concern for the families of his brothers and sisters who continued in father Hans Luther's copper mining trade, which was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld's bringing this industry under his own personal control for his own profit. The controversy that ensued involved all four of the Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late [[1545]] to participate in the negotiations for a settlement. A third visit was needed in early [[1546]] to complete the negotiations. On [[January 23]] Luther left Wittenberg accompanied by his three sons. The negotiations were successfully concluded on [[February 17]]. After 8:00 p.m. on that day Luther suffered chest pains. When he went to his bed he prayed, &quot;Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God&quot; (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1:00 a.m. he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. Knowing that his death was imminent, he thanked God for revealing His Son to him in Whom he had believed. His companions Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius shouted loudly, &quot;Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in His name?&quot; A distinct &quot;Yes&quot; was Luther's reply. He died 2:45 a.m. [[February 18]], [[1546]] in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg near to where he had made such an impact on Christendom: his pulpit{{ref|Brecht_369}}.<br /> <br /> A slip of paper Luther wrote [[February 16]], [[1546]], was his last written statement: &quot;Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as [[Elijah]] and [[Elisha]], [[John the Baptist]], Christ, and the [[apostle]]s . . . We are beggars: this is true&quot;{{ref|last}}.<br /> <br /> [[Image:The_Worms_Luther_Statue.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> ==His legacy==<br /> Martin Luther, more than the reformers that preceded him, shaped the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Thanks to the [[printing press]], his pamphlets were well-read throughout Germany, influencing many subsequent [[Protestant Reformers]] and thinkers and giving rise to diversifying Protestant traditions in Europe and elsewhere. Protestant countries, no longer subject to the [[papacy]], exercised their expanded freedom of thought, facilitating Protestant Europe's rapid intellectual advancement in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th centuries]], giving rise to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Age of Reason]]. In reaction to the [[Protestant Reformation]], the [[Catholic Reformation]], too, was a part of this intellectual advancement, for example, through its scholastic [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] order. Many consider Martin Luther one of the shapers of the standard form of German language.<br /> <br /> On the darker side, the absolute power of princes over their subjects increased considerably in the Lutheran territories, and [[Roman Catholic|Catholics]] and [[Protestants]] waged bitter and ferocious wars of religion against each other. A century after Luther's protests, a revolt in [[Bohemia]] ignited the [[Thirty Years' War]], a [[Roman Catholics|Catholic]] vs. [[Protestants]] war which ravaged much of Germany and killed about a third of the population.<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Christianity]]<br /> * [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]<br /> * [[Jesus]]<br /> * [[Real Presence]]<br /> * [[Consubstantiation]]<br /> * [[Erasmus' Correspondents]]<br /> * [[Huldrych Zwingli]]<br /> * [[John Calvin]]<br /> * [[Luther's Seal]]<br /> * [[Lutheranism]]<br /> * [[Protestant Reformation]]<br /> <br /> == Footnotes ==<br /> # {{note|Brecht_48}} Brecht, vol. 1, p. 48<br /> # {{note|Staupitz}} [http://newadvent.org/cathen/14283a.htm Johann Von Staupitz] at [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]<br /> # {{note|Brecht_93}} Brecht, vol. 1, p. 93<br /> # {{note|Brecht_126}} Brecht, vol. 1, pp. 126&amp;ndash;27; ''Luther's Works'', vol. 10, pp. 1-2<br /> # {{note|Brecht_182}} Brecht, vol. 1, p. 182<br /> # {{note|Brecht_200}} Brecht, vol. 1, p. 200<br /> # {{note|nobility}} ''An Open Letter to The Christian Nobility of the German Nation Concerning the Reform of the Christian Estate, 1520'' [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/nblty-03.html Part 1] [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/nblty-04.html Part 2] <br /> # {{note|Bainton_142}} Bainton, pp. 142&amp;ndash;44<br /> # {{note|letter99}} [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/letsinsbe.txt ''Letter 99.13, To Philipp Melanchthon''] <br /> # {{note|Armstrong}} [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ247.HTM The Protestant Inquisition. &quot;Reformation&quot; Intolerance and Persecution] by Dave Armstrong<br /> # {{note|Johnson_1}} Paul Johnson: ''A History of the Jews'', 1987. p.242<br /> # {{note|Siemon-Netto_19}} Siemon-Netto, Uwe. &quot;Luther and the Jews.&quot; &lt;cite&gt;Lutheran Witness&lt;/cite&gt; 123 (2004)No. 4:19.<br /> # {{note|OntheJews}}Martin Luther, &quot;On the Jews and Their Lies,&quot; Trans. Martin H. Bertram, in &lt;cite&gt;Luther's Works&lt;/cite&gt; (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971), 268-271.<br /> # {{note|Johnson}}Johnson, 242.<br /> # {{note|Briese}}Russell Briese, &quot;Martin Luther and the Jews,&quot; &lt;cite&gt;Lutheran Forum&lt;/cite&gt; 34 (2000) no. 2:30.<br /> # {{note|Grislis}}Egil Grislis, &quot;Martin Luther and the Jews,&quot; &lt;cite&gt;Consensus&lt;/cite&gt; 27(2001) No. 1:64.<br /> # {{note|exodus}} [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Exodus#Chapter_22 Exodus 22:18].<br /> # {{note|Haustein}}Jörg Haustein, &quot;Martin Luthers Stellung zum Zauber- und Hexenwesen&quot;. Dissertation, Berlin 1990, p. 150.<br /> # {{note|SC}} Small Catechism, I.B.A [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/little.book/web/book-1.html#b]<br /> # {{note|Brecht_369}} cf. Brecht, vol. 3, pp. 369&amp;ndash;79<br /> # {{note|last}} [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/beggars.txt ''The Last Written Words of Luther'']<br /> <br /> ==Bibliography==<br /> * Bainton, Roland H. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995 (1950). ISBN 0452011469.<br /> * Bornkamm, Heinrich. ''Luther in Mid-Career 1521-1530''. E. Theodore Bachmann, trans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983. ISBN 0800606922.<br /> * Bornkamm, Heinrich. ''Luther's World of Thought''. Martin H. Bertram, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958. ISBN 0758608322 <br /> * Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. 3 Volumes. James L. Schaaf, trans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985-1993. ISBN 0800628136, ISBN 0800628144, ISBN 0800628152.<br /> * Dickens, A.G. ''Martin Luther and the Reformation''. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1967. ASIN: B0007DY59M.<br /> * Haile, H.G. ''Luther: An Experiment in Biography''. Garden City, New York: Doubleday &amp; Co., 1980. ISBN 0385159609.<br /> * Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed. ''The Reformation: A Narrative History Related by Contemporary Observers and Participants''. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1979. ISBN 0801041856.<br /> * Iserloh, Erwin, ''The Theses Were Not Posted: Luther Between Reform and Reformation''. Jared Wicks, trans. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1968. <br /> * Kittelson, James M. ''Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and His Career''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986. ISBN 0806622407.<br /> * Kolb, Robert. ''Martin Luther As Prophet, Teacher, Hero: Images of the Reformer, 1520-1620''. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2000. ISBN 0801022142. <br /> * Luther, Martin. ''Christian Cyclopedia.'' St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2000. [http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=L&amp;word=LUTHER.MARTIN]<br /> * Luther, Martin. ''Luther's Works''. 55 Volumes. Various translators. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1957. CD-ROM edition, 2001.<br /> * MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''The Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490-1700''. London: BBC Books 2003. ISBN 0713993707<br /> * Manns, Peter. ''Martin Luther: An Illustrated Biography''. New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1982. ISBN 0824505107<br /> * Marty, Martin. ''Martin Luther: A Penguin Life''. New York: Penguin, 2004. ISBN 0670032727<br /> * Nohl, Frederick. ''Luther: Biography of a Reformer''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2003. ISBN 0758606516<br /> * Oberman, Heiko A. ''Luther: Man Between God and the Devil''. New York: Doubleday, 1989. ISBN 0385422784<br /> * Oberman, Heiko A. ''The Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Age of Renaissance and Reformation''. James I. Porter, trans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984. ISBN 0800607090<br /> * Plass, Ewald M. ''This Is Luther: A Character Study''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1948 [Reprint, 1984]. ISBN 0570039428.<br /> * Reu, [John] M[ichael]. ''Luther and the Scriptures''. Columbus, Ohio: The Wartburg Press, 1944. [Reprint: St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1980].<br /> * Reu, [John] M[ichael]. ''Luther's German Bible: An Historical Presentation Together with a Collection of Sources''. Columbus, Ohio: The Lutheran Book Concern, 1934. [Reprint: St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1984].<br /> * [[Gerhard Ritter|Ritter, Gerhard]]. ''Luther: His Life and Work''. John Riches, trans. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1963. ISBN 0313203474<br /> * Schwiebert, E.G. ''Luther and His Times''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950. ISBN 0570032466.<br /> * Siemon-Netto, Uwe. ''The Fabricated Luther: the Rise and Fall of the Shirer myth''. Peter L. Berger, Foreward. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1995. ISBN 0570048001.<br /> * Siemon-Netto, Uwe. &quot;Luther and the Jews.&quot; Lutheran Witness 123 (2004)No. 4:16-19. [http://www.lcms.org/graphics/assets/media/Lutheran%20Witness/Apr04.pdf]<br /> * Tjernagel, Neelak S. ''Martin Luther and the Jewish People''. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 1985. ISBN 0810002132<br /> * Todd, John M. ''Luther: A Life''. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1982. ISBN 0824504798 (Also at [http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=801])<br /> * Westerholm, Stephen ''Israel's Law and the Church's Faith''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1988. ISBN 0802802885<br /> <br /> ==Filmography==<br /> * 1953: ''Martin Luther'', theatrical film, with Niall MacGinnis as Luther; directed by Irving Pichel. [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] nominations for black &amp; white cinematography and art/set direction. Rereleased in 2002 on DVD in 4 languages.<br /> * 1974: ''Luther'', theatrical film ([[MPAA]] rating: PG), with [[Stacy Keach]] as Luther.<br /> * 1981: ''Where Luther Walked'', documentary featuring the late Roland Bainton as guide and narrator, directed by Ray Christensen (VHS released in 1992), ISBN 1563640120<br /> * 1983: ''Martin Luther: Heretic'', TV presentation with Jonathan Pryce as Luther, directed by Norman Stone.<br /> * 1983: ''Martin Luther: An Eye on Augsburg'', a film funded by the Northern Illinois District of the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod|LCMS]] with Rev. Robert Clausen as Luther.<br /> * 2001: ''Opening the Door to Luther'', travelogue hosted by Rick Steves. Sponsored by the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|ELCA]].<br /> * 2002: ''Martin Luther'', a historical film from the Lion TV/[[PBS]] ''Empires'' series, with Timothy West as Luther, narrated by [[Liam Neeson]] and directed by Cassian Harrison.<br /> * 2003: ''[[Luther (film)|Luther]]'', theatrical release (MPAA rating: PG-13), with [[Joseph Fiennes]] as Luther and directed by Eric Till. Partially funded by American and German Lutheran groups.<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> ===Original texts===<br /> {{commons|Martin Luther}}<br /> {{Wikisource author}}<br /> {{Wikisource|de:Biblia|Luther's Bible}}<br /> {{wikiquote}}<br /> ''Writings of Luther and contemporaries, translated into English''<br /> * [http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/luther/ Project Wittenberg, an archive of Lutheran documents]<br /> * [http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/luther/theses/ Full text of the ''95 Theses'']<br /> * [http://www.bookofconcord.org/smalcald.html Full text of the ''Smalcald Articles'']<br /> * [http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/boc/sc/ Full text of the ''Small Catechism'']<br /> * [http://www.bookofconcord.org/largecatechism.html Full text of the ''Large Catechism'']<br /> * [http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/peasants1525.html Excerpts from ''Against the Murderous, Thieving Peasants'']<br /> * [http://www.johanescalvin.org/ Martin Luther for Today's Christians]<br /> *[http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/luther/babylonian/babylonian.htm ''Prelude On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church'']<br /> *[http://www.godrules.net/library/luther/NEW1luther_c5.htm Commentary on The '''Magnificat''' (Luke 1:46-55), 1521] [http://www.christianbook.com/Christian/Books/product/?item_no=64210&amp;p=1010575] [http://www.bestwebbuys.com/books/series/sid/01090269]<br /> <br /> ===Online resources===<br /> ''Online information on Luther and his work''<br /> * [http://www.carolinaclassical.com/articles/luther.html The Musical Reforms of Martin Luther]<br /> * [http://www.luther.de/ KDG Wittenberg's Luther site (7 languages)]<br /> * [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/people/luther.htm Martin Luther &amp;ndash; ReligionFacts.com]<br /> * [http://www.martinluther.de/Luther Memorial Foundation of Saxony Anhalt (German/English)]<br /> * [http://www.pbs.org/empires/martinluther/index.html ''Martin Luther'' &amp;ndash; PBS movie]<br /> * [http://www.lutherthemovie.com'' Luther'' &amp;ndash; theatrical release]<br /> * [http://www.ctsfw.edu/luther/article.php ''Martin Luther: The Reformer Travelling Exhibition'']<br /> * [http://www.ccel.org/php/disp.php?authorID=schaff&amp;bookID=encyc07&amp;page=69&amp;view=thml ''New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge'' article on &quot;Luther, Martin&quot;]<br /> * [http://www.archiv-vegelahn.de/nachschlagwerke_luther.html Martin Luther - Eine Bibliographie (German)]<br /> * {{gutenberg author| id=../browse/authors/l#a155 | name=Martin Luther}}<br /> * [http://www.prominentpeople.co.za/people/16.php Martin Luther]<br /> * [http://rsparlourtricks.blogspot.com/2005/11/one-bull-necked-german-priest.html Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: One Bull-Necked German Priest]<br /> * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3944549.stm The &quot;seat&quot; of the Reformation] - (BBC News)<br /> <br /> [[Category:1483 births|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:1546 deaths|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Natives of Saxony-Anhalt|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Anti-Semitism|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Augustinians|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Bible translators|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Christian leaders|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:German theologians|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Lutherans|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Protestant Reformers|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Revolutionaries|Luther, Martin]]<br /> <br /> {{Link FA|no}}<br /> <br /> [[af:Maarten Luther]]<br /> [[ar:مارتن لوثر]]<br /> [[ast:Martín Lutero]]<br /> [[be:Марцін Лютэр]]<br /> [[bs:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[bg:Мартин Лутер]]<br /> [[ca:Martí Luter]]<br /> [[cs:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[cy:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[da:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[de:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[et:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[es:Martín Lutero]]<br /> [[eo:Marteno Lutero]]<br /> [[eu:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[fr:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[ga:Mairtín Liútar]]<br /> [[gl:Martín Lutero]]<br /> [[ko:마르틴 루터]]<br /> [[hr:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[ilo:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[id:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[is:Marteinn Lúther]]<br /> [[it:Martin Lutero]]<br /> [[he:מרטין לותר]]<br /> [[la:Martinus Luther]]<br /> [[lv:Mārtiņš Luters]]<br /> [[lt:Martynas Liuteris]]<br /> [[hu:Luther Márton]]<br /> [[ms:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[nl:Maarten Luther]]<br /> [[ja:マルティン・ルター]]<br /> [[no:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[nds:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[pl:Marcin Luter]]<br /> [[pt:Martinho Lutero]]<br /> [[ro:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[ru:Лютер, Мартин]]<br /> [[scn:Martin Luteru]]<br /> [[simple:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[sk:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[sl:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[sh:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[fi:Martti Luther]]<br /> [[sv:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[vi:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[tr:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[uk:Лютер Мартін]]<br /> [[zh:馬丁·路德]]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ''In brief,'' Martin Luther was a German theologian in the sixteenth century whose teaching against [[purgatory]] and [[indulgences]] inspired the [[Reformation]] leading to the [[Protestant]] split from the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Luther translated the [[Bible]] into his native German language and the [[hymns]] he wrote sparked anew the development of congregational singing in [[Christianity]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:Luther_statue_gg.jpg|thumb|A statue of Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Overviews'''<br /> * [[An overview of Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Articles / opinions'''<br /> * [[Comments about Martin Luther]]<br /> * [[A look at justification by faith and good works in Luther's theology (J.S)]]<br /> * [[Luther's view on the canon of scripture (J.S.)]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Documents written by Martin Luther'''<br /> * [[Luther's 95 Theses|The 95 Theses]]<br /> * The Bondage of the Will. Luther, Martin. (English Translation by J.I. Packer ISBN 0800753429)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Quotes'''<br /> * [[Famous quotes by Martin Luther]]<br /> * [[Famous quotes about Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Songs written by Martin Luther'''<br /> * [[A mighty stronghold is our God]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Movies about Martin Luther'''<br /> * [[Luther (movie)]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''See also'''<br /> * [[Lutheran church]]<br /> * [[The Reformation]]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phoenixx|Phoenixx]] 10:14, 5 April 2006 (EDT)</div> Phoenixx http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/index.php?title=Martin_Luther&diff=15305 Martin Luther 2006-04-05T14:31:42Z <p>Phoenixx: /* Luther's Theology of Grace */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:luther.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Luther at age 46 (Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1529)]]<br /> [[Image:luther_seal.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&lt;center&gt;The Luther Seal]]<br /> <br /> '''Martin Luther''' ([[November 10]], [[1483]]&amp;ndash;[[February 18]], [[1546]]) was a [[German people|German]] [[theology|theologian]], an [[Augustinian]] [[monasticism|monk]], and an [[ecclesiastical]] [[Protestant Reformers|reformer]] whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] and deeply influenced the [[doctrine]]s and culture of the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] traditions. Luther's call to the Church to return to the teachings of the [[Bible]] led to the formation of new [[tradition]]s within [[Christianity]] and to the [[Catholic Reformation|Counter-Reformation]], the [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] reaction to these movements. His contributions to Western civilization went beyond the life of the Christian Church. His translations of the Bible helped to develop a standard version of the [[German language]] and added several principles to the art of [[translation]]. His [[hymn]]s inspired the development of congregational singing in Christianity. His marriage on [[June 13]], [[1525]], to [[Katharina von Bora]] began a movement of [[clerical marriage]] within many Christian traditions.<br /> <br /> ==Luther's early life==<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was born to [[Hans Luther (15th century)|Hans]] and [[Margarette Luther]], ''née'' Lindemann, on [[November 10]], [[1483]], in [[Eisleben]], [[Germany]], and was baptized on the feast day of [[Martin of Tours|St. Martin of Tours]], after whom he was named. His father owned a [[copper]] mine in nearby [[Mansfeld]]. Having risen from the [[peasantry]], his father was determined to see his son ascend to [[civil service]] and bring further honor to the family. To that end, Hans sent young Martin to schools in Mansfeld, [[Magdeburg]] and [[Eisenach]].<br /> <br /> At the age of seventeen, in 1501, Luther entered the [[University of Erfurt]]. The young student received a [[Bachelor's degree]] in 1502 and a [[Master's degree]] in 1505. According to his father's wishes, he enrolled in the law school of that university.<br /> <br /> All that changed during a thunderstorm in the summer of 1505. A [[lightning bolt]] struck near to him as he was returning to school. Terrified, he cried out, &quot;Help, [[Saint Anne]]! I'll become a monk!&quot;{{ref|Brecht_48}}. His life spared, Luther left his law school and entered the [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[monastery]] in [[Erfurt]].<br /> <br /> ==Luther's struggle to find peace with God==<br /> [[Image:Luther_with_tonsure.gif|thumb|right|175px]] Young Brother Martin Luther fully dedicated himself to monastic life, the effort to do good works to please [[God]] and to serve others through prayer for their [[soul|souls]]. He devoted himself to [[fasting|fasts]], [[flagellation]]s, long hours in [[prayer]] and [[pilgrimage]] and constant [[confession]]. The more he tried to do for God, it seemed, the more aware he became of his sinfulness.<br /> <br /> [[Johann von Staupitz]]{{ref|Staupitz}}, Luther's superior, concluded the young man needed more work to distract him from excessive [[rumination]]. He ordered the monk to pursue an academic career. In [[1507]] Luther was ordained to the priesthood. In [[1508]] he began teaching [[theology]] at the [[University of Wittenberg]]. Luther received his Bachelor's degree in Biblical Studies on [[March 9]], [[1508]], and a Bachelor's degree in the ''[[Sentences]]'' by [[Peter Lombard]] (the main textbook of theology in the [[Middle Ages]]), in [[1509]]{{ref|Brecht_93}}. On [[October 19]], [[1512]], Martin Luther received the degree [[Doctor of Theology]] and on [[October 21]], [[1512]], he was &quot;received into the senate of the theological faculty&quot; and called to the position of ''Doctor in Biblia''{{ref|Brecht_126}}.<br /> <br /> == Luther's theology of grace ==<br /> The demanding discipline of earning academic and theological degrees and preparing lectures drove Martin Luther to study the Scriptures in depth. Influenced by [[Humanism]]'s call ''ad fontes'' (&quot;to the sources&quot;), he immersed himself in the study of the Bible and the early Church. Soon terms like [[penance]] and [[righteousness]] took on new meaning for Luther, and he became convinced that the Church had lost sight of several of the central truths of Christianity taught in Scripture—the most important of them being the doctrine of [[justification]] by faith alone. Luther began to teach that [[salvation]] is completely a gift of God's [[Divine grace|grace]] through [[Christ]] received by [[faith]]. <br /> <br /> Later, Luther defined and reintroduced the principle of the proper distinction between [[Law and Gospel]] that undergirded his theology of grace. Overall, Luther believed that this principle of interpretation was an essential starting point in the study of the Scriptures. Luther saw failure to distinguish [[Law and Gospel]] properly as the cause of the obstruction of the [[Gospel]] of [[Jesus]] in the Church of his day, which, he believed, gave rise to many fundamental theological errors in turn.<br /> <br /> ==The Indulgence Controversy==<br /> In addition to his duties as a professor, Martin Luther served as a preacher and confessor at the Castle Church, a &quot;foundation&quot; of [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony|Frederick the Wise]], [[Elector of Saxony]]. This church was named &quot;All Saints&quot; because it was the repository of his collection of [[relic|holy relics]]. This [[parish]] served both the Augustinian monastery and the university. It was in the performance of these duties that the young priest was confronted with the effects of obtaining [[indulgence]]s on the lives of everyday people.<br /> &lt;!--<br /> Please note: indulgences were very common and many more than just these two were available to common people. Moreover, there is no evidence that even Luther knew how the Archbishop financed the St. Peter's Indulgence. All they really knew is it would build a church for the bones of St. Peter <br /> --&gt;<br /> An indulgence is the remission (either full or partial) of temporal punishment still remaining for sins after their guilt has already been removed by absolution. A buyer could purchase one, either for himself or for one of his deceased relatives in [[purgatory]]. The [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar [[Johann Tetzel]] was enlisted to travel throughout [[Albert of Mainz|Archbishop Albert of Mainz's]] episcopal territories promoting and selling indulgences for the renovation of [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in [[Rome]]. [[Johann Tetzel|Tetzel]] was very successful at it. He urged: &quot;as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs&quot;{{ref|Brecht_182}}.<br /> <br /> As a priest concerned about the spiritual welfare of his parishioners, Luther saw this traffic in indulgences as an abuse that could mislead them into relying simply on the indulgences themselves to the neglect of the confession, true repentance, and satisfactions. Luther preached three sermons against indulgences in [[1516]] and [[1517]]. &lt;!-- Please see the 95 Theses page for discussion of whether Luther actually nailed the 95 Theses to the Castle Church door. Please discuss on talk page before adding more about them here, since these sentences are summaries of that whole article --&gt; A popular myth states that on [[October 31]] [[1517]], according to traditional accounts, Luther's [[95 Theses]] were nailed to the door of the Castle Church as an open invitation to debate them{{ref|Brecht_200}}. However, it is now known that Luther never actually nailed his doctrines to a church door, it is just reverberated by tour guides to attract tourists. The Theses condemned greed and worldliness in the Church as an abuse and asked for a theological disputation on what indulgences could grant. Luther did not challenge the authority of the pope to grant indulgences in these theses.<br /> <br /> The [[95 Theses]] were quickly translated into German, widely copied and printed. Within two weeks they had spread throughout Germany, and within two months throughout Europe. This was one of the first events in history that was profoundly affected by the [[printing press]], which made the distribution of documents easier and more widespread.<br /> <br /> ==Response of the Papacy==<br /> [[Image:Martin Luther Woodcut.jpg|thumb|250 px|Turning this woodcut upside-down can show how Martin Luther's enemies thought of him.]]<br /> After disregarding Luther as &quot;a drunken German who wrote the Theses&quot; who &quot;when sober will change his mind,&quot; [[Pope Leo X]] ordered the Dominican professor of theology, [[Sylvester Mazzolini]], called from his birthplace [[Priero]], Prierias (also Prieras), in 1518, to inquire into the matter. Prierias recognized Luther's implicit opposition to the authority of the pope by being at variance with a [[Papal bull|papal bull]], declared him a heretic, and wrote a scholastic refutation of his theses. It asserted papal authority over the Church and denounced every departure from it as a [[heresy]]. Luther replied in kind, and a controversy developed.<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, Luther took part in an Augustinian convention at Heidelberg, where he presented theses on the slavery of man to sin and on divine grace. In the course of the controversy on indulgences, the question arose of the absolute power and authority of the pope, since the doctrine of the &quot;Treasury of the Church,&quot; the &quot;Treasury of Merits,&quot; which undergirded the doctrine and practice of indulgences, was based on the Bull ''Unigenitus'' ([[1343]]) of [[Pope Clement VI]]. Because of his opposition to that doctrine, Luther was branded a heretic, and the pope, who had determined to suppress his views, summoned him to Rome. <br /> <br /> Yielding, however, to the [[Frederick the Wise|Elector Frederick]], who the pope hoped would become the next Holy Roman Emperor and who was unwilling to part with his theologian, the pope did not press the matter, and the cardinal legate [[Cajetan]] was deputed to receive Luther's submission at Augsburg (Oct. 1518). <br /> <br /> Luther, while professing his implicit obedience to the Church, now boldly denied papal authority, and appealed first &quot;from the pope not well informed to the pope who should be better informed&quot; and then (Nov. 28) to a general [[Ecumenical Councils|council]]. Luther now declared that the papacy formed no part of the original and immutable essence of the Church.<br /> <br /> Desiring to remain on friendly terms with Luther, the pope made a final attempt to reach a peaceful resolution of the conflict with him. A conference with the papal chamberlain [[Karl von Miltitz]] at [[Altenburg]] in January 1519 led Luther to agree to remain silent as long as his opponents would, to write a humble letter to the pope, and to compose a treatise demonstrating his reverence for the Catholic Church. The letter was written but never sent, since it contained no retraction. In the German treatise he composed later, Luther, while recognizing purgatory, clergy/laity distinction, indulgences, and the invocation of the saints, denied all effect of indulgences on purgatory. <br /> <br /> When [[Johann Eck]] challenged Luther's colleague Carlstadt to a disputation at [[Leipzig]], Luther joined in the debate ([[27 June]]&amp;ndash;[[18 July]] [[1519]]). In the course of this debate he denied the divine right of the papal office and authority, holding that the &quot;power of the keys&quot; had been given to the Church (i.e., to the congregation of the faithful). He denied that membership in the western Catholic Church under the pope was necessary to salvation, maintaining the validity of the eastern [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Greek (Orthodox) Church]]. After the debate, Johann Eck claimed that he had forced Luther to admit the similarity of his own doctrine to that of [[Jan Hus]], who had been [[execution by burning|burned at the stake]]. Eck viewed this as corroborating his own claim that Luther was &quot;the Saxon Hus&quot; and an arch heretic.<br /> <br /> == The breach widens==<br /> ===Luther's thought develops===<br /> There was no longer hope of peace. Luther's writings were now circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519, and students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther, who had been joined by [[Philipp Melanchthon|Melanchthon]] in 1518, and now published his shorter commentary on Galatians and his ''Operationes in Psalmos'' (''Work on the Psalms''), while at the same time he received deputations from Italy and from the [[Utraquist]]s of Bohemia. <br /> <br /> These controversies necessarily led Luther to develop his theses further, and in his &lt;cite&gt;Sermon on the Blessed Sacrament of the Holy and True Body of Christ, and the Brotherhoods&lt;/cite&gt;, he set forth the significance of the [[Eucharist]] that it is for the forgiveness of sins and the strengthening of faith for those who receive it, he advocated that a council be called to restore communion in both kinds for the laity. <br /> <br /> The Lutheran concept of the Church, wholly based on immediate relation to the Christ who gives himself in preaching and the sacraments, was already developed in his ''Von dem Papsttum zu Rom'' (''On the Papacy in Rome''), a reply to the attack of the Franciscan [[Augustin von Alveld]] at Leipzig (June 1520); while in his ''Sermon von guten Werken'' (''Sermon on Good Works''), delivered in the spring of 1520, he controverted the Catholic doctrine of good works and works of [[supererogation]], holding that the works of the believer are truly good in any secular calling (vocation) ordered of God.<br /> <br /> ===The treatises of 1520===<br /> ====''To the German Nobility''====<br /> The disputation at Leipzig (1519) brought Luther into contact with the humanists, particularly Melanchthon, [[Johann Reuchlin|Reuchlin]], [[Erasmus]], and associates of the knight [[Ulrich von Hutten]], who, in turn, influenced the knight [[Franz von Sickingen]]. Von Sickingen and Silvester of Schauenburg wanted to place Luther under their protection by inviting him to their fortresses in the event that it would not be safe for him to remain in Saxony because of the threatened papal ban. <br /> <br /> Under these circumstances, complicated by the crisis then confronting the German nobles, Luther issued his ''To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation'' (Aug. 1520), committing to the [[laity]], as spiritual [[priest]]s, the reformation required by God but neglected by the pope and the clergy. For the first time of many, Luther here publicly referred to the pope as the [[Antichrist]].{{ref|nobility}}<br /> The reforms Luther proposed concerned not only points of doctrine but also ecclesiastical abuses: the diminution of the number of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s and demands of the papal court; the abolition of [[annates]]; the recognition of secular government; the renunciation of papal claims to [[temporal power]]; the abolition of the [[interdict]] and abuses connected with the [[excommunication|ban]]; the abolition of harmful [[pilgrimage]]s; the reform of [[mendicant order]]s to eliminate wrongdoing; the elimination of the excessive number of holy days; the suppression of nunneries, beggary, and luxury; the reform of the universities; the abrogation of the [[clerical celibacy]]; reunion with the Bohemians; and a general reform of public morality.<br /> <br /> ====''The Babylonian Captivity''====<br /> Luther employed doctrinal polemics in his [[On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church|''Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church'']], especially with regard to the [[sacrament]]s.<br /> <br /> With regard to the Eucharist, he advocated restoring the cup to the [[laity]], called into question the [[dogma]] of [[Transubstantiation]] while affirming the real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, and rejected the teaching that the Eucharist was a sacrifice offered to God. <br /> <br /> With regard to [[Baptism]], he taught that it brings [[Justification (theology)|justification]] only if conjoined with saving faith in the recipient; however, it remained the foundation of [[salvation]] even for those who might later fall and be reclaimed. <br /> <br /> As for [[penance]], its essence consists in the words of promise ([[Absolution (religious)|absolution]]) received by faith. Only these three can be regarded as sacraments because of their [[divine]] institution and the divine promises of salvation connected with them; but, strictly speaking, only Baptism and the Eucharist are sacraments, since only they have &quot;divinely instituted visible sign[s]&quot;: water in Baptism and bread and wine in the Eucharist. Luther denied in this document that [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]], [[Catholic marriage|Matrimony]], [[Holy Orders]], and [[Anointing of the Sick|Extreme Unction]] were sacraments.<br /> <br /> ====''Freedom of a Christian''====<br /> In like manner, the full development of Luther's doctrine of salvation and the Christian life is seen in his ''On the Freedom of a Christian'' (published [[November 20]], [[1520]]). Here he required complete union with Christ by means of the Word through faith, entire freedom of the Christian as a priest and king set above all outward things, and perfect love of one's neighbor. The three works may be considered among the chief writings of Luther on the Reformation.<br /> <br /> ===The excommunication of Luther===<br /> On [[June 15]], [[1520]], the Pope warned Martin Luther with the [[papal bull]] ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'' that he risked [[excommunication]] unless he recanted 41 points of doctrine culled from his writings within 60 days. In October [[1520]], at the instance of Miltitz, Luther sent his ''On the Freedom of a Christian'' to the pope, adding the significant phrase: &quot;I submit to no laws of interpreting the word of God.&quot; Meanwhile, it had been rumored in August that Eck had arrived at Meissen with a papal [[Ban (law)|ban]], which was actually pronounced there on [[September 21]]. This last effort of Luther's for peace was followed on [[December 12]] by his burning of the bull, which was to take effect on the expiration of 120 days, and the papal [[decretal]]s at Wittenberg, a proceeding defended in his ''Warum des Papstes und seiner Jünger Bücher verbrannt sind'' and his ''Assertio omnium articulorum''. [[Pope Leo X]] excommunicated Luther on [[January 3]],[[1521]], in the bull ''[[Decet Romanum Pontificem]]''.<br /> <br /> The execution of the ban, however, was prevented by the pope's relations with [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony]] and by the new emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who, in view of the papal attitude toward him and the feeling of the [[Reichstag (institution)|Diet]], found it inadvisable to lend his aid to measures against Luther.<br /> <br /> ==Diet of Worms==<br /> {{main|Diet of Worms}}<br /> [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]] opened the imperial [[Diet of Worms]] on [[January 22]], [[1521]]. Luther was summoned to renounce or reaffirm his views and was given an imperial guarantee of safe conduct to ensure his safe passage.<br /> <br /> On [[April 16]], Luther appeared before the Diet. Johann Eck, an assistant of Archbishop of Trier, presented Luther with a table filled with copies of his writings. Eck asked Luther if the books were his and if he still believed what these works taught. Luther requested time to think about his answer. It was granted. Luther prayed, consulted with friends and mediators and presented himself before the Diet the next day. When the matter came before the Diet the next day, Counsellor Eck asked Luther to plainly answer the question: &quot;Would Luther reject his books and the errors they contain?&quot; Luther replied: &quot;Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason&amp;mdash;I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other&amp;mdash;my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe.&quot; According to tradition, Luther is then said to have spoken these words: &quot;Here I stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen&quot;{{ref|Bainton_142}}.<br /> <br /> Over the next few days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. Before a decision was reached, Luther left Worms. During his return to Wittenberg, he disappeared.<br /> <br /> The Emperor issued the [[Edict of Worms]] on [[May 25]], [[1521]], declaring Martin Luther an [[outlaw]] and a [[heresy|heretic]] and banning his literature.<br /> <br /> ==Exile at the Wartburg Castle==<br /> [[Image:Wartburg_eisenach1.jpg|thumb|right|Wartburg Castle in [[Eisenach]]]]<br /> Luther's disappearance during his return trip was planned. Frederick the Wise arranged for Luther to be seized on his way from the Diet by a company of masked horsemen, who carried him to [[Wartburg Castle]] at Eisenach, where he stayed for about a year. He grew a wide flaring beard, took on the garb of a knight, and assumed the pseudonym Junker Jörg (Knight George). During this period of forced sojourn in the world, Luther was still hard at work upon his celebrated translation of the [[New Testament]], though he could not rely on the isolation of a monastery. <br /> [[Image:Hugo Vogel Luther Wartburg.jpg|thumb|left|Martin Luther Preaching at the Wartburg, by Hugo Vogel]]<br /> With Luther's residence in the Wartburg began a constructive period of his career as a reformer; while at the same time the struggle was inaugurated against those who, claiming to proceed from the same Evangelical basis, were deemed by him to swing to the opposite extreme and to hinder, if not prevent, all constructive measures. In his &quot;desert&quot; or &quot;Patmos&quot; (as he called it in his letters) of the Wartburg, moreover, he began his translation of the Bible, of which the New Testament was printed in September 1522. Here, too, besides other pamphlets, he prepared the first portion of his German postilla and his ''Von der Beichte'' (''Concerning Confession''), in which he denied compulsory confession, although he admitted the wholesomeness of voluntary private confessions. He also wrote a polemic against Archbishop Albrecht, which forced him to desist from reopening the sale of indulgences; while in his attack on Jacobus Latomus he set forth his views on the relation of grace and the law, as well as on the nature of the grace communicated by Christ. Here he distinguished the objective grace of God to the sinner, who, believing, is justified by God because of the justice of Christ, from the saving grace dwelling within sinful man; while at the same time he emphasized the insufficiency of this &quot;beginning of justification,&quot; as well as the persistence of sin after baptism and the sin still inherent in every good work.<br /> <br /> Although his stay at Wartburg kept Luther hidden from public view, Luther often received letters from his friends and allies asking for his views and advice. For example, [[Philipp Melanchthon]] wrote to him and asked how to answer the charge that the reformers neglected pilgrimages, fasts and other traditional forms of piety. Luther replied on [[August 1]], [[1521]]: &quot;If you are a preacher of mercy, do not preach an imaginary but the true mercy. If the mercy is true, you must therefore bear the true, not an imaginary sin. God does not save those who are only imaginary sinners. Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides. We, however, says Peter ([[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] 3:13) are looking forward to a new heaven and a new earth where justice will reign&quot;{{ref|letter99}}.<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, some of the Saxon clergy, notably [[Bartholomäus Bernhardi of Feldkirchen]], had renounced the vow of celibacy, while others, including Melanchthon, had assailed the validity of monastic vows. Luther in his ''De votis monasticis'' (''Concerning Monastic Vows''), though more cautious, concurred, on the ground that the vows were generally taken &quot;with the intention of salvation or seeking justification.&quot; With the approval of Luther in his ''De abroganda missa privata'' (''Concerning the Abrogation of the Private Mass''), but against the firm opposition of the prior, the Wittenberg Augustinians began changes in worship and did away with the mass. Their violence and intolerance, however, were displeasing to Luther, and early in December he spent a few days among them. Returning to the Wartburg, he wrote his ''Eine treue Vermahnung . . . vor Aufruhr und Empörung'' (''A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion''); but in Wittenberg, Carlstadt and the ex-Augustinian [[Gabriel Zwilling]] demanded the abolition of the private mass, communion in both kinds, the removal of pictures from churches, and the abrogation of the magistracy.<br /> <br /> == Return to Wittenberg and the ''Invocavit Sermons'' ==<br /> Around Christmas [[1521]], Anabaptists from Zwickau added to the anarchy. Thoroughly opposed to such radical views and fearful of their results, Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg [[March 6]], [[1522]], and the Zwickau prophets left the city. For eight days beginning on [[March 9]], Invocavit Sunday, and concluding on the following Sunday, Luther preached eight sermons that would become known as the ''Invocavit Sermons''. In these sermons Luther counseled careful reform that took into consideration the consciences of those who were not yet persuaded to embrace reform. Communion in one kind (the consecrated bread) was restored for a time, the consecrated cup given only to those of the laity who desired it. He was thought by his hearers John Agricola and Jerome Schurf to have accomplished his goal of quelling unrest. The [[canon of the mass]], giving it its sacrificial character, was now omitted. Since the former practice of penance had been abolished, communicants were now required to declare their intention to commune and to seek consolation in Christian [[confession]] and absolution. This new form of service was set forth by Luther in his ''Formula missæ et communionis'' (''Form of the Mass and Communion'', 1523), and in 1524 the first Wittenberg hymnal appeared with four of his own hymns. Since, however, his writings were forbidden in that part of Saxon ruled by [[George, Duke of Saxony|Duke George]], Luther declared, in his ''Über die weltliche Gewalt, wie weit man ihr Gehorsam schuldig sei'' (''Temporal Authority: to What Extent It Should Be Obeyed''), that the civil authority could enact no laws for the soul, herein denying to a Catholic what he permitted an Evangelical.<br /> <br /> == Martin Luther's marriage and family ==<br /> [[April 8]], [[1523]], Luther wrote Wenceslaus Link: &quot;Yesterday I received nine nuns from their captivity in the Nimbschen convent.&quot; Luther had arranged for Torgau burgher Leonhard Koppe on [[April 4]] to assist twelve nuns to escape from Marien-thron Cistercian monastery in Nimbschen near Grimma in Ducal Saxony. He transported them out of the convent in herring barrels. Three of the nuns went to be with their relatives, leaving the nine that were brought to Wittenberg. One of them was [[Katharina von Bora]]. All of them but she were happily provided for. In May and June [[1523]], it was thought that she would be married to a Wittenberg University student, Jerome Paumgartner, but his family most likely prevented it. Dr. Caspar Glatz was the next prospective husband put forward, but Katharina had &quot;neither desire nor love&quot; for him. She made it known that she wanted to marry either Luther himself or Nicholas von Amsdorf. Luther did not feel that he was a fit husband considering his being excommunicated by the pope and outlawed by the emperor. In May or early June [[1525]], it became known in Luther's circle that he intended to marry Katharina. Forestalling any objections from friends against Katharina, Luther acted quickly: on the evening of Tuesday, [[June 13]], [[1525]], Luther was legally married to Katharina, whom he would affectionately call &quot;Katy.&quot; Katy moved into her husband's home, the former Augustinian monastery in Wittenberg, and they began their family: The Luthers had three boys and three girls:<br /> *Hans, born [[June 7]], [[1526]], studied law, became a court official, and died in [[1575]]. <br /> *Elizabeth, born [[December 10]], [[1527]], prematurely died on [[August 3]], [[1528]]. <br /> *Magdalena, born [[May 5]], [[1529]], died in her father's arms [[September 20]], [[1542]]. Her death was particularly hard to bear for Luther and his wife.<br /> *Martin, Jr., born [[November 9]], [[1531]], studied theology but never had a regular pastoral call before his death in [[1565]]. <br /> *Paul, born [[January 28]], [[1533]], became a physician. He fathered six children before his death on [[March 8]], [[1593]] and the male line of the Luther family continued through him to [[John Ernest Luther|John Ernest]], ending in [[1759]]. <br /> *Margaretha, born [[December 17]], [[1534]], married [[George von Kunheim]] of the noble, wealthy Prussian family, but died in [[1570]] at the age of 36. Her descendants have continued to the present time.<br /> <br /> ==The Peasants' War==<br /> The [[Peasants' War]] (1524&amp;ndash;25) was in many ways a response to the preaching of Luther and others. Revolts by the peasantry had existed on a small scale since the 14th century, but many peasants mistakenly believed that Luther's attack on the Church and the hierarchy meant that the reformers would support an attack on the social hierarchy as well, because of the close ties between the secular princes and the princes of the Church that Luther condemned. Revolts that broke out in Swabia, Franconia, and Thuringia in [[1524]] gained support among peasants and disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt at that period. Gaining momentum and a new leader in [[Thomas Muentzer|Thomas Münzer]], the revolts turned into an all-out war, the experience of which played an important role in the founding of the [[Anabaptist]] movement. Initially, Luther seemed to many to support the peasants, condemning the oppressive practices of the nobility that had incited many of the peasants. As the war continued, and especially as atrocities at the hands of the peasants increased, the revolt became an embarrassment to Luther, who now professed forcefully to be against the revolt; since Luther relied on support and protection from the princes, he was afraid of alienating them. In ''[[Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants]]'' ([[1525]]), he encouraged the nobility to visit swift and bloody punishment upon the peasants. Many of the revolutionaries considered Luther's words a betrayal. Others withdrew once they realized that there was neither support from the Church nor from its main opponent. The war in Germany ended in 1525, when rebel forces were put down by the armies of the [[Swabian League]].<br /> <br /> ==Luther's German Bible==<br /> {{main|Luther Bible}}<br /> [[Image:Lutherbibel.jpg|thumb|240px|Luther's 1534 bible]]<br /> Luther translated the [[Bible]] into [[German language|German]] to make it more accessible to the common people. He began the task of translating the [[New Testament]] alone in [[1521]] during his stay in the [[Wartburg]] castle. It was completed and published in September, [[1522]]. The entire [[Bible]] appeared in a six-part edition in [[1534]] and was a collaborative effort of Luther, [[Johannes Bugenhagen]], [[Justus Jonas]], [[Caspar Creuziger]], [[Philipp Melanchthon]], [[Matthew Aurogallus]], and [[George Rörer]]. Luther worked on refining the translation for the rest of his life, having a hand in the edition that was published in the year of his death, [[1546]]. The [[Luther Bible]] by reason of its widespread circulation facilitated the emergence of the modern [[German language]] by standardizing it for the peoples of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] that would become [[Germany]] in the [[nineteenth century]], and it is considered a landmark in [[German literature]].<br /> <br /> == Transformations in liturgy and church government ==<br /> Luther marked a further step in his revision of the liturgy by his &lt;cite&gt;Deutsche Messe&lt;cite&gt; [&lt;cite&gt;German Mass&lt;cite&gt;] in 1526, making provision for week-day services and for catechetical instruction. He strongly objected, however, to making a new law of the forms, and urged the retention of other good liturgies. While Luther advocated Christian liberty in liturgical matters in this way, he also spoke out in favor of maintaining and establishing liturgical uniformity among those sharing the same faith in a given area. He saw in liturgical uniformity a fitting outward expression of unity in the faith, while in liturgical variation, an indication of or invitation to doctrinal variation. He did not consider liturgical innovation and change a virtue, especially not one to be exercised by individual Christians or congregations; he was content to reform what he had inherited from the past.<br /> <br /> The gradual transformation of the administration of baptism was accomplished in the &lt;cite&gt;Taufbüchlein&lt;cite&gt; [''Baptismal Booklet''] (1523, 1526). <br /> <br /> In May, 1525, the first evangelical ordination took place at Wittenberg. Luther had rejected the Roman Catholic view of ordination as a sacrament. A service of ordination with the laying-on of hands with prayer in a solemn congregational service was considered a fitting ecclesiastical rite. To fill the vacuum of the lack of higher ecclesiastical authority—few bishops in the German lands embraced Luther's doctrine—as early as 1525 Luther held that the secular authorities should take part in the administration of the Church, as in making appointments to ecclesiastical office and in directing visitations. Nevertheless, the discharge of these functions did not appertain to the secular authorities as such, and Luther would have gladly vested them in an evangelical episcopate had a larger number of bishops become evangelicals. He even declared in 1542 that the evangelical princes themselves &quot;must be necessity-bishops,&quot; and even went so far as to meditate (letter of Mar. 29, 1527) a &quot;congregation of Christians&quot; with full ecclesiastical powers, but determined to be guided by the course of events and to wait until parishes and schools were provided with the proper persons. Since, however, the result of the Saxon visitation gave no encouragement to this project, it was deemed far more important first to win non-Christians to the Christian faith through the Gospel, preserving the external form of the Church as it was at the beginning of the Reformation. The visitation accordingly took place in 1527-29, Luther writing the preface to Melanchthon's &lt;cite&gt;Unterricht der Visitatoren an die Pfarrherrn&lt;cite&gt; (''Instruction for the Visitors of Parish Pastors''), and himself acting as a visitor in one of the districts after Oct., 1528, while, as a result of his observations, he wrote both his catechisms in 1529. At the same time he took the keenest interest in education, conferring with [[George Spalatin]] in 1524 on plans for a school system, and declared that it was the duty of the civil authorities to provide schools and to see that parents sent their children to them. He also advocated the establishment of elementary schools for the instruction of girls. In the meantime, Lutheran churches in Scandinavia and many of the Baltic States, as well as the [[Moravians]], continued to maintain the [[Historic Episcopate]] and [[apostolic succession]], even though they had adopted Luther's anti-papal theology.<br /> <br /> == Eucharistic views and controversies ==<br /> In the meantime, the nature of the [[Eucharist]] had become a theme on which Luther found himself obliged to articulate his doctrine fully and polemically. Rejecting the [[Roman Catholic]] doctrine of [[Transubstantiation]], he nevertheless maintained the [[Real Presence]] of the body and blood of Christ in the sacramental bread and wine. He stood by the simple, literal meaning of the [[Words of Institution]] (&quot;This is my body,&quot; &quot;This is my blood&quot;). Refusing to define the mystery of the Eucharist by concepts such as [[Consubstantiation]], Luther utilized the [[patristic]] analogy for the doctrine of the Personal Union of the two natures in [[Jesus Christ]] to illustrate his eucharistic doctrine: &quot;by the analogy of the iron put into the fire whereby both fire and iron are united in the red-hot iron and yet each continues unchanged,&quot; a concept which he called the &quot;[[Sacramental Union]].&quot; (''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', F.L. Cross, Ed., London: Oxford, 1958, p. 337). <br /> <br /> Luther's doctrine distinguished him from [[Carlstadt]], [[Zwingli]], [[Leo Jud]], and [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Œcolampadius]], who went &quot;further&quot; by rejecting the [[Real Presence]] altogether. [[Carlstadt]], [[Zwingli]] and [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Œcolampadius]] offered differing interpretations of the words of institution: [[Carlstadt]] interpreted the &quot;This&quot; of &quot;This is my body&quot; as Christ's action of pointing to himself, [[Zwingli]] interpreted the &quot;is&quot; as &quot;signifies&quot;, and [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Œcolampadius]] interpreted &quot;my body&quot; as &quot;a sign of my body.&quot; In the controversy that ensued, Luther replied to [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Œcolampadius]] in the preface to the ''Syngramma Suevicum'' [''Swabian Writing''], and also set forth his views in his ''Sermon von den Sakramenten'' . . . ''Wider die Schwärmgeister'' [''Sermon on the Sacrament'' . . . ''Against the Fanatical Spirits''] and ''Dass diese Worte . . . noch feststehen'' [''That These Words . . . Still Stand Firm''] (spring, 1527), and, more exhaustively, in his ''Vom Abendmahl Christi Bekenntnis'' [''Confession on Christ's Supper''] (1528). <br /> <br /> In view of the perils to Protestantism in the measures of the [[Diet of Speyer]] in 1529 and the coalition of the emperor with France and the pope, the Landgrave Philip desired a union of all the adherents of the Reformation, but Luther declared himself opposed to any alliance which might aid heresy. He accepted, however, the landgrave's invitation to a conference at [[Marburg Colloquy|Marburg (Oct. 1-3, 1529)]] to settle the matters in controversy. At Marburg, Luther opposed Œcolampadius, while Melanchthon was the antagonist of Zwingli. Although they found an unexpected harmony in other respects, no agreement could be reached regarding the Eucharist. Luther therefore refused to call his opponents brethren, even while he wished them peace and love. Luther was convinced that God had blinded Zwingli's eyes so that he could not see the true doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Luther denounced Zwingli and his followers at this time as &quot;fanatics,&quot; &quot;patricides,&quot; &quot;matricides,&quot; &quot;fratricides,&quot; &quot;devils,&quot; &quot;knaves,&quot; &quot;heretics,&quot; &quot;rioters,&quot; &quot;hypocrites,&quot; and the like. <br /> <br /> The princes themselves then subscribed to the Schwabach Articles, upheld by Luther as a condition of alliance with them. Luther's basis for his Eucharistic doctrine was not a mere literal interpretation of the words of institution, but rather thankfulness for Jesus' bodily sacrifice and the administration of this very same body. Luther emphasized the absolute unity of the divine with the human in Christ to explain the actual presence; while Christ's presence is &quot;repletive&quot; (filling all places at once), his omnipresence in the Eucharist is especially &quot;definitive&quot; (unbound by space). <br /> <br /> On the other hand, Luther taught with equal clearness that participation in itself is of no avail without faith. He insisted that the impious and even beasts in partaking of the consecrated elements partake of the body and blood of Christ, but the unworthy partake unto damnation. Also, while he disputed the view that the Eucharist is a mere memorial, he fully recognized the commemorative element in it. As regards the effect of the Sacrament on the faithful, he laid special stress on the words &quot;given for you,&quot; and hence on the atonement and forgiveness through the death of Christ.<br /> <br /> ==The Small and Large Catechisms==<br /> In [[1528]], Frederick asked Luther to tour the local churches to determine the quality of the peasants' Christian education. Luther wrote in the preface to the Small [[Catechism]], &quot;Mercy! Good God! what manifold misery I beheld! The common people, especially in the villages, have no knowledge whatever of Christian doctrine, and, alas! many pastors are altogether incapable and incompetent to teach.&quot; In response, Luther prepared the Small and Large Catechisms. They are instructional and devotional material on what Luther considered the fundamentals of the Christian faith, namely the [[Ten Commandments]]; the [[Apostles' Creed]]; the [[Lord's Prayer]]; [[Baptism]]; [[Confession]] and Absolution; and the [[Eucharist]]. The Small Catechism was supposed to be read by the people themselves, the Large Catechism, by the pastors. The two catechisms are still popular instructional materials among [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]<br /> .<br /> <br /> == The Diet of Augsburg and the question of civil resistance ==<br /> Under the same perilous conditions which had made desirable an alliance of all adherents of the Reformation, the estates convened with the emperor at Augsburg in 1530, when the relation of the empire to Protestantism was definitely to be determined. Luther, despised by emperor and empire, remained at Coburg, but the confession there presented by Melanchthon was essentially based upon his labors. The latter, while refraining from an authoritative attitude, was little pleased by the smooth and cautious procedure of Melanchthon, and saw no chance of harmony of doctrine except in abolishment of the papacy, although he hoped for official toleration of both religions in the empire. While the recess of the diet gave the Protestants only a short time to make their submission, the emperor, urged on by threatened war with the Turks and by the Schmalkald League of the Protestant princes and cities, made further attempts to secure harmony, which led to the Religious Peace of Nuremberg in 1532 (q.v.), to last until a general council should be called to make a final decision. Since the Diet of Speyer (1529) the question had become vital whether, in case the emperor refused peace, the princes were justified in, or even bound to, armed resistance. Until now Luther had held that even wrongful acts of the emperor in no way released his subjects from obedience, and had been unfavorable to offensive and defensive alliances between Evangelical princes, preserving this attitude even in regard to the Schmalkald League. His position was somewhat modified, however, by the opinions of the jurists that in cases of public and notorious injustice the existing imperial laws (&quot;the emperor himself in his laws&quot;) warranted such resistance. Accepting this, he nevertheless referred judgment on the present conditions to the jurists, and not to the theologians. In his Warnung an die lieben Deutschen (1531), nevertheless, he openly advocated resistance in a righteous cause, while in letters written in 1539 he went back still further to the general requirements of natural law.<br /> <br /> ==Luther's other writings==<br /> {{mergefrom|Luther’s View of The Holy Ghost (God) as a Rhetorician in Bondage of the Will}} <br /> [[Image:Autograph of Martin Luther.png|right|frame|[[Autograph]] of Martin Luther.]]<br /> The number of books attributed to Martin Luther is nothing short of impressive. However, some Luther scholars contend that many of the works were at least drafted by some of his good friends like [[Melanchthon]]. Luther's fame provided a much larger potential audience than his &amp;mdash; at least as learned &amp;mdash; friends could have obtained under their own names. <br /> <br /> His books explain the settings of the [[epistles]] and show the conformity of the books of the Bible to each other. Of special note would be his writings about the [[Epistle to the Galatians]], in which he compares himself to the [[Apostle Paul]] in his defense of the [[Gospel]] (for example, the faith-building commentary in ''Luther and the Epistle to the Galatians''). <br /> <br /> Luther also wrote about church administration and wrote much about the Christian home.<br /> <br /> Luther's writing was very polemical, and when he was passionate about a subject, he would often insult his opponents. For example, in the preface to &lt;cite&gt;De Servo Arbitrio&lt;/cite&gt; (''[[On the Bondage of the Will]]''), a response to [[Erasmus]]'s ''Diatribe seu collatio de libero arbitrio'' (''Discussion, or Collation, concerning free will''), Luther writes, <br /> :&quot;your book ... struck me as so worthless and poor that my heart went out to you for having defiled your lovely, brilliant flow of language with such vile stuff. I thought it outrageous to convey material of so low a quality in the trappings of such rare eloquence; it is like using gold or silver dishes to carry garden rubbish or dung.&quot; <br /> <br /> Luther, as well as the other reformers, were quite intolerant of others' beliefs,{{ref|Armstrong}} and this may have exacerbated the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation in Germany]]. This intolerance was displayed in [[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]] which is remembered even today (see [[Martin Luther and the Jews]]). <br /> <br /> However, an indication that Luther really meant what he said in his &lt;cite&gt;De servo arbitrio&lt;/cite&gt; and was not simply carried away by [[rhetoric]] is that, twelve years later, when Luther's friends began collecting his writings, he was able to say that, of all the things he had written, he considered only his [[catechism]] and his book &lt;cite&gt;On the Bondage of the Will&lt;/cite&gt; to be truly worthwhile.<br /> <br /> Luther's work contains a number of statements that modern readers would consider rather crude. It should be remembered that Luther received many communications from throughout Europe from people who could write anonymously, that is, without the spectre of mass media making their communications known. No public figure today could write in the manner of the correspondences Luther received or in the way Luther responded to them. Opinions today can be immediately shared electronically with a wide audience. At least one such statement would not be heard from most modern pastors: He regularly told the Devil off.<br /> <br /> ==Martin Luther and the Jews==<br /> {{main|Martin Luther and the Jews}}<br /> Luther's anti-Jewish rhetoric and doctrines are often described as [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] {{ref|Johnson_1}} or examples of [[anti-Judaism]]. {{ref|Siemon-Netto_19}} Luther had expected that presenting his understanding of the Christian gospel to the Jews would [[religious conversion|convert]] them, but when his efforts failed, he became embittered and recommended their harsh persecution. In his pamphlet ''Von den Juden und ihren Lügen'' (''[[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]]''), published in 1543, he wrote that Jews' [[synagogue]]s should be set on fire, [[Siddur|prayerbook]]s destroyed, [[rabbi]]s forbidden to preach, homes &quot;smashed and destroyed,&quot; property seized, money confiscated, and that these &quot;poisonous envenomed worms&quot; be drafted into forced labor or expelled &quot;for all time.&quot; {{ref|OntheJews}}<br /> <br /> British historian [[Paul Johnson]] has called ''On the Jews and their Lies'' the &quot;first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]].&quot;{{ref|Johnson}} Australian Lutheran pastor Russell Briese's comments at the Council of Christians and Jews at the Great Synagogue in Sydney: &quot;historians are at a loss to find a direct link between the anti-semitism of Luther's time and that of Hitler's campaign.&quot; {{ref|Briese}}. Four centuries later, the [[Nazism|Nazis]] cited the pamphlet to justify the [[Final Solution]].{{ref|Grislis}} Since the 1980s, [[Lutheranism|Lutheran church]] bodies and organizations have begun a process of formally disassociating themselves from these writings.<br /> <br /> ==Martin Luther and the medieval persecution of witches==<br /> Luther shared the common medieval superstition against [[witchcraft]] as inimical to [[Christianity]]. The persecution of witches and warlocks took place in [[Protestant]] as well as in [[Roman Catholic]] countries in Middle Europe during and after the [[Reformation]]. Not only Luther but [[John Calvin]] supported this persecution as well. They felt it to be in accordance with Exodus 22:18. {{ref|exodus}} Luther mentioned the hunting down of witches in a few of his sermons (e.g. that of May 6, 1526: WA 16, 551f., cf. also WA 3, 1179f, WA 29, 520f). In a sermon of August 25, 1538 Luther said: &quot;You must not have pity on witches, I myself would burn them&quot; („Mit Hexen muß man kein Mitleid haben; ich wollte sie selber verbrennen“) (WA 22, 782ff.). {{ref|Haustein}} Luther believed witchcraft to be a sin against the Second Commandment. {{ref|SC}}<br /> <br /> ==Luther's last journey and death==<br /> Martin Luther's final journey to Mansfeld Eisleben came about because of his concern for the families of his brothers and sisters who continued in father Hans Luther's copper mining trade, which was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld's bringing this industry under his own personal control for his own profit. The controversy that ensued involved all four of the Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late [[1545]] to participate in the negotiations for a settlement. A third visit was needed in early [[1546]] to complete the negotiations. On [[January 23]] Luther left Wittenberg accompanied by his three sons. The negotiations were successfully concluded on [[February 17]]. After 8:00 p.m. on that day Luther suffered chest pains. When he went to his bed he prayed, &quot;Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God&quot; (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1:00 a.m. he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. Knowing that his death was imminent, he thanked God for revealing His Son to him in Whom he had believed. His companions Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius shouted loudly, &quot;Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in His name?&quot; A distinct &quot;Yes&quot; was Luther's reply. He died 2:45 a.m. [[February 18]], [[1546]] in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg near to where he had made such an impact on Christendom: his pulpit{{ref|Brecht_369}}.<br /> <br /> A slip of paper Luther wrote [[February 16]], [[1546]], was his last written statement: &quot;Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as [[Elijah]] and [[Elisha]], [[John the Baptist]], Christ, and the [[apostle]]s . . . We are beggars: this is true&quot;{{ref|last}}.<br /> <br /> [[Image:The_Worms_Luther_Statue.jpg|right]]<br /> <br /> ==His legacy==<br /> Martin Luther, more than the reformers that preceded him, shaped the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Thanks to the [[printing press]], his pamphlets were well-read throughout Germany, influencing many subsequent [[Protestant Reformers]] and thinkers and giving rise to diversifying Protestant traditions in Europe and elsewhere. Protestant countries, no longer subject to the [[papacy]], exercised their expanded freedom of thought, facilitating Protestant Europe's rapid intellectual advancement in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th centuries]], giving rise to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Age of Reason]]. In reaction to the [[Protestant Reformation]], the [[Catholic Reformation]], too, was a part of this intellectual advancement, for example, through its scholastic [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] order. Many consider Martin Luther one of the shapers of the standard form of German language.<br /> <br /> On the darker side, the absolute power of princes over their subjects increased considerably in the Lutheran territories, and [[Roman Catholic|Catholics]] and [[Protestants]] waged bitter and ferocious wars of religion against each other. A century after Luther's protests, a revolt in [[Bohemia]] ignited the [[Thirty Years' War]], a [[Roman Catholics|Catholic]] vs. [[Protestants]] war which ravaged much of Germany and killed about a third of the population.<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Christianity]]<br /> * [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]<br /> * [[Jesus]]<br /> * [[Real Presence]]<br /> * [[Consubstantiation]]<br /> * [[Erasmus' Correspondents]]<br /> * [[Huldrych Zwingli]]<br /> * [[John Calvin]]<br /> * [[Luther's Seal]]<br /> * [[Lutheranism]]<br /> * [[Protestant Reformation]]<br /> <br /> == Footnotes ==<br /> # {{note|Brecht_48}} Brecht, vol. 1, p. 48<br /> # {{note|Staupitz}} [http://newadvent.org/cathen/14283a.htm Johann Von Staupitz] at [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]<br /> # {{note|Brecht_93}} Brecht, vol. 1, p. 93<br /> # {{note|Brecht_126}} Brecht, vol. 1, pp. 126&amp;ndash;27; ''Luther's Works'', vol. 10, pp. 1-2<br /> # {{note|Brecht_182}} Brecht, vol. 1, p. 182<br /> # {{note|Brecht_200}} Brecht, vol. 1, p. 200<br /> # {{note|nobility}} ''An Open Letter to The Christian Nobility of the German Nation Concerning the Reform of the Christian Estate, 1520'' [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/nblty-03.html Part 1] [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/nblty-04.html Part 2] <br /> # {{note|Bainton_142}} Bainton, pp. 142&amp;ndash;44<br /> # {{note|letter99}} [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/letsinsbe.txt ''Letter 99.13, To Philipp Melanchthon''] <br /> # {{note|Armstrong}} [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ247.HTM The Protestant Inquisition. &quot;Reformation&quot; Intolerance and Persecution] by Dave Armstrong<br /> # {{note|Johnson_1}} Paul Johnson: ''A History of the Jews'', 1987. p.242<br /> # {{note|Siemon-Netto_19}} Siemon-Netto, Uwe. &quot;Luther and the Jews.&quot; &lt;cite&gt;Lutheran Witness&lt;/cite&gt; 123 (2004)No. 4:19.<br /> # {{note|OntheJews}}Martin Luther, &quot;On the Jews and Their Lies,&quot; Trans. Martin H. Bertram, in &lt;cite&gt;Luther's Works&lt;/cite&gt; (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971), 268-271.<br /> # {{note|Johnson}}Johnson, 242.<br /> # {{note|Briese}}Russell Briese, &quot;Martin Luther and the Jews,&quot; &lt;cite&gt;Lutheran Forum&lt;/cite&gt; 34 (2000) no. 2:30.<br /> # {{note|Grislis}}Egil Grislis, &quot;Martin Luther and the Jews,&quot; &lt;cite&gt;Consensus&lt;/cite&gt; 27(2001) No. 1:64.<br /> # {{note|exodus}} [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Exodus#Chapter_22 Exodus 22:18].<br /> # {{note|Haustein}}Jörg Haustein, &quot;Martin Luthers Stellung zum Zauber- und Hexenwesen&quot;. Dissertation, Berlin 1990, p. 150.<br /> # {{note|SC}} Small Catechism, I.B.A [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/little.book/web/book-1.html#b]<br /> # {{note|Brecht_369}} cf. Brecht, vol. 3, pp. 369&amp;ndash;79<br /> # {{note|last}} [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/beggars.txt ''The Last Written Words of Luther'']<br /> <br /> ==Bibliography==<br /> * Bainton, Roland H. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995 (1950). ISBN 0452011469.<br /> * Bornkamm, Heinrich. ''Luther in Mid-Career 1521-1530''. E. Theodore Bachmann, trans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983. ISBN 0800606922.<br /> * Bornkamm, Heinrich. ''Luther's World of Thought''. Martin H. Bertram, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958. ISBN 0758608322 <br /> * Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. 3 Volumes. James L. Schaaf, trans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985-1993. ISBN 0800628136, ISBN 0800628144, ISBN 0800628152.<br /> * Dickens, A.G. ''Martin Luther and the Reformation''. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1967. ASIN: B0007DY59M.<br /> * Haile, H.G. ''Luther: An Experiment in Biography''. Garden City, New York: Doubleday &amp; Co., 1980. ISBN 0385159609.<br /> * Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed. ''The Reformation: A Narrative History Related by Contemporary Observers and Participants''. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1979. ISBN 0801041856.<br /> * Iserloh, Erwin, ''The Theses Were Not Posted: Luther Between Reform and Reformation''. Jared Wicks, trans. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1968. <br /> * Kittelson, James M. ''Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and His Career''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986. ISBN 0806622407.<br /> * Kolb, Robert. ''Martin Luther As Prophet, Teacher, Hero: Images of the Reformer, 1520-1620''. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2000. ISBN 0801022142. <br /> * Luther, Martin. ''Christian Cyclopedia.'' St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2000. [http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=L&amp;word=LUTHER.MARTIN]<br /> * Luther, Martin. ''Luther's Works''. 55 Volumes. Various translators. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1957. CD-ROM edition, 2001.<br /> * MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''The Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490-1700''. London: BBC Books 2003. ISBN 0713993707<br /> * Manns, Peter. ''Martin Luther: An Illustrated Biography''. New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1982. ISBN 0824505107<br /> * Marty, Martin. ''Martin Luther: A Penguin Life''. New York: Penguin, 2004. ISBN 0670032727<br /> * Nohl, Frederick. ''Luther: Biography of a Reformer''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2003. ISBN 0758606516<br /> * Oberman, Heiko A. ''Luther: Man Between God and the Devil''. New York: Doubleday, 1989. ISBN 0385422784<br /> * Oberman, Heiko A. ''The Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Age of Renaissance and Reformation''. James I. Porter, trans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984. ISBN 0800607090<br /> * Plass, Ewald M. ''This Is Luther: A Character Study''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1948 [Reprint, 1984]. ISBN 0570039428.<br /> * Reu, [John] M[ichael]. ''Luther and the Scriptures''. Columbus, Ohio: The Wartburg Press, 1944. [Reprint: St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1980].<br /> * Reu, [John] M[ichael]. ''Luther's German Bible: An Historical Presentation Together with a Collection of Sources''. Columbus, Ohio: The Lutheran Book Concern, 1934. [Reprint: St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1984].<br /> * [[Gerhard Ritter|Ritter, Gerhard]]. ''Luther: His Life and Work''. John Riches, trans. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1963. ISBN 0313203474<br /> * Schwiebert, E.G. ''Luther and His Times''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950. ISBN 0570032466.<br /> * Siemon-Netto, Uwe. ''The Fabricated Luther: the Rise and Fall of the Shirer myth''. Peter L. Berger, Foreward. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1995. ISBN 0570048001.<br /> * Siemon-Netto, Uwe. &quot;Luther and the Jews.&quot; Lutheran Witness 123 (2004)No. 4:16-19. [http://www.lcms.org/graphics/assets/media/Lutheran%20Witness/Apr04.pdf]<br /> * Tjernagel, Neelak S. ''Martin Luther and the Jewish People''. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 1985. ISBN 0810002132<br /> * Todd, John M. ''Luther: A Life''. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1982. ISBN 0824504798 (Also at [http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=801])<br /> * Westerholm, Stephen ''Israel's Law and the Church's Faith''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1988. ISBN 0802802885<br /> <br /> ==Filmography==<br /> * 1953: ''Martin Luther'', theatrical film, with Niall MacGinnis as Luther; directed by Irving Pichel. [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] nominations for black &amp; white cinematography and art/set direction. Rereleased in 2002 on DVD in 4 languages.<br /> * 1974: ''Luther'', theatrical film ([[MPAA]] rating: PG), with [[Stacy Keach]] as Luther.<br /> * 1981: ''Where Luther Walked'', documentary featuring the late Roland Bainton as guide and narrator, directed by Ray Christensen (VHS released in 1992), ISBN 1563640120<br /> * 1983: ''Martin Luther: Heretic'', TV presentation with Jonathan Pryce as Luther, directed by Norman Stone.<br /> * 1983: ''Martin Luther: An Eye on Augsburg'', a film funded by the Northern Illinois District of the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod|LCMS]] with Rev. Robert Clausen as Luther.<br /> * 2001: ''Opening the Door to Luther'', travelogue hosted by Rick Steves. Sponsored by the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|ELCA]].<br /> * 2002: ''Martin Luther'', a historical film from the Lion TV/[[PBS]] ''Empires'' series, with Timothy West as Luther, narrated by [[Liam Neeson]] and directed by Cassian Harrison.<br /> * 2003: ''[[Luther (film)|Luther]]'', theatrical release (MPAA rating: PG-13), with [[Joseph Fiennes]] as Luther and directed by Eric Till. Partially funded by American and German Lutheran groups.<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> ===Original texts===<br /> {{commons|Martin Luther}}<br /> {{Wikisource author}}<br /> {{Wikisource|de:Biblia|Luther's Bible}}<br /> {{wikiquote}}<br /> ''Writings of Luther and contemporaries, translated into English''<br /> * [http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/luther/ Project Wittenberg, an archive of Lutheran documents]<br /> * [http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/luther/theses/ Full text of the ''95 Theses'']<br /> * [http://www.bookofconcord.org/smalcald.html Full text of the ''Smalcald Articles'']<br /> * [http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/boc/sc/ Full text of the ''Small Catechism'']<br /> * [http://www.bookofconcord.org/largecatechism.html Full text of the ''Large Catechism'']<br /> * [http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/peasants1525.html Excerpts from ''Against the Murderous, Thieving Peasants'']<br /> * [http://www.johanescalvin.org/ Martin Luther for Today's Christians]<br /> *[http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/luther/babylonian/babylonian.htm ''Prelude On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church'']<br /> *[http://www.godrules.net/library/luther/NEW1luther_c5.htm Commentary on The '''Magnificat''' (Luke 1:46-55), 1521] [http://www.christianbook.com/Christian/Books/product/?item_no=64210&amp;p=1010575] [http://www.bestwebbuys.com/books/series/sid/01090269]<br /> <br /> ===Online resources===<br /> ''Online information on Luther and his work''<br /> * [http://www.carolinaclassical.com/articles/luther.html The Musical Reforms of Martin Luther]<br /> * [http://www.luther.de/ KDG Wittenberg's Luther site (7 languages)]<br /> * [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/people/luther.htm Martin Luther &amp;ndash; ReligionFacts.com]<br /> * [http://www.martinluther.de/Luther Memorial Foundation of Saxony Anhalt (German/English)]<br /> * [http://www.pbs.org/empires/martinluther/index.html ''Martin Luther'' &amp;ndash; PBS movie]<br /> * [http://www.lutherthemovie.com'' Luther'' &amp;ndash; theatrical release]<br /> * [http://www.ctsfw.edu/luther/article.php ''Martin Luther: The Reformer Travelling Exhibition'']<br /> * [http://www.ccel.org/php/disp.php?authorID=schaff&amp;bookID=encyc07&amp;page=69&amp;view=thml ''New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge'' article on &quot;Luther, Martin&quot;]<br /> * [http://www.archiv-vegelahn.de/nachschlagwerke_luther.html Martin Luther - Eine Bibliographie (German)]<br /> * {{gutenberg author| id=../browse/authors/l#a155 | name=Martin Luther}}<br /> * [http://www.prominentpeople.co.za/people/16.php Martin Luther]<br /> * [http://rsparlourtricks.blogspot.com/2005/11/one-bull-necked-german-priest.html Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: One Bull-Necked German Priest]<br /> * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3944549.stm The &quot;seat&quot; of the Reformation] - (BBC News)<br /> <br /> [[Category:1483 births|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:1546 deaths|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Natives of Saxony-Anhalt|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Anti-Semitism|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Augustinians|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Bible translators|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Christian leaders|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:German theologians|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Lutherans|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Protestant Reformers|Luther, Martin]]<br /> [[Category:Revolutionaries|Luther, Martin]]<br /> <br /> {{Link FA|no}}<br /> <br /> [[af:Maarten Luther]]<br /> [[ar:مارتن لوثر]]<br /> [[ast:Martín Lutero]]<br /> [[be:Марцін Лютэр]]<br /> [[bs:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[bg:Мартин Лутер]]<br /> [[ca:Martí Luter]]<br /> [[cs:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[cy:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[da:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[de:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[et:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[es:Martín Lutero]]<br /> [[eo:Marteno Lutero]]<br /> [[eu:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[fr:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[ga:Mairtín Liútar]]<br /> [[gl:Martín Lutero]]<br /> [[ko:마르틴 루터]]<br /> [[hr:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[ilo:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[id:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[is:Marteinn Lúther]]<br /> [[it:Martin Lutero]]<br /> [[he:מרטין לותר]]<br /> [[la:Martinus Luther]]<br /> [[lv:Mārtiņš Luters]]<br /> [[lt:Martynas Liuteris]]<br /> [[hu:Luther Márton]]<br /> [[ms:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[nl:Maarten Luther]]<br /> [[ja:マルティン・ルター]]<br /> [[no:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[nds:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[pl:Marcin Luter]]<br /> [[pt:Martinho Lutero]]<br /> [[ro:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[ru:Лютер, Мартин]]<br /> [[scn:Martin Luteru]]<br /> [[simple:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[sk:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[sl:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[sh:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[fi:Martti Luther]]<br /> [[sv:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[vi:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[tr:Martin Luther]]<br /> [[uk:Лютер Мартін]]<br /> [[zh:馬丁·路德]]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ''In brief,'' Martin Luther was a German theologian in the sixteenth century whose teaching against [[purgatory]] and [[indulgences]] inspired the [[Reformation]] leading to the [[Protestant]] split from the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Luther translated the [[Bible]] into his native German language and the [[hymns]] he wrote sparked anew the development of congregational singing in [[Christianity]].<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> [[Image:Luther_statue_gg.jpg|thumb|A statue of Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Overviews'''<br /> * [[An overview of Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Articles / opinions'''<br /> * [[Comments about Martin Luther]]<br /> * [[A look at justification by faith and good works in Luther's theology (J.S)]]<br /> * [[Luther's view on the canon of scripture (J.S.)]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Documents written by Martin Luther'''<br /> * [[Luther's 95 Theses|The 95 Theses]]<br /> * The Bondage of the Will. Luther, Martin. (English Translation by J.I. Packer ISBN 0800753429)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Quotes'''<br /> * [[Famous quotes by Martin Luther]]<br /> * [[Famous quotes about Martin Luther]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Songs written by Martin Luther'''<br /> * [[A mighty stronghold is our God]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Movies about Martin Luther'''<br /> * [[Luther (movie)]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''See also'''<br /> * [[Lutheran church]]<br /> * [[The Reformation]]<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> --[[User:Phoenixx|Phoenixx]] 10:14, 5 April 2006 (EDT)</div> Phoenixx